FUNCTIONS AND PROPERTIES

OF DRILLING FLUIDS
Intro to Drilling Fluids

What is Drilling Fluid or Mud?

It is a mixture of liquids and chemicals

that allow the drilling and completion of
a well.

Drilling Fluid has to provide many functions in

order that these objectives be achieved.
Primary Functions
Lift and Carry Drilled Cuttings to Surface
Control Formation Pressures
Maintain a Stable In Gauge Hole
Cool and Lubricate the Bit
Lubricate the Drill String
Secure Hole Information
Power / Transmit signals from Downhole Tools
Prevent fluid from entering the formation
Permit separation of solids at surface
Form a thin low permeability filter cake
Negative Functions
Not injure people or be damaging to the environment.
Not require unusual or expensive methods of completion
Non damaging to the fluid bearing formation
Not corrode or cause excessive wear of drilling equipment
Ridiculously expensive
Intro to Drilling Fluids
The Drilling Fluid Company must be able to:
Provide cost effective solutions to the operators drilling
problems
Maintain the mud properties
Provide an adequate supply of products on site and at the
base
Provide adequate reporting
Engineer the fluid in widely differing conditions and locations
Provide back up testing facilities
Avoid damaging the reservoir
Balancing Sub-Surface Pressures
The pore pressure depends on:
The density of the overlying rock
The density of the interstitial fluid
Whether the rock is self supporting or is supported by the
fluid.
Tectonic activity
Surface terrain

If the fluid hydrostatic pressure does not balance the pore

pressure the following may occur:
Influxes of formation fluid into the wellbore
Lost circulation
Hole Instability
Stuck pipe
1) Balancing Sub-Surface Pressures
The pressure balancing the Hydrostatic Pressure (psi)
formation pressure is composed = Height (ft) x Density(ppg) x 0.052
from the hydrostatic pressure under
static conditions:
P = Depth (ft) x Density (ppg) x 0.052

Under circulating conditions the

effective pressure is increased by the
pumping pressure. This forms the
Equivalent Circulating density (ECD):
ECD = Density (ppg) + Ann Press Loss Pore
Depth x 0.052 Pressure
(Not normally
known)
 2) Remove Cuttings From the Well Bore
The most important parameter is the
Annular Velocity (A.V.)
Where possible the annular velocity
should be 100 ft/min, higher in deviated
holes.
In large hole sections the A.V. can be as A.V.(ft/min)
low as 20 ft/min. = Pump rate (bbls/min)
Annular vol (bbls/ft)
If the A.V. is insufficient to clean the
hole the viscosity must be increased
For top hole high viscosities must be
used Slip Velocity (ft/min)
=Cuttings velocity - A.V.
Cuttings removal is harder in deviated
and horizontal holes as the vertical
component of the mud is reduced.
3) Suspension of Solids
Whenever the pumps are switched off solids will start to
settle. This can result in:
Bridging off of the wellbore
Stuck pipe
Hole fill
Loss of Hydrostatic
A gel structure is required to suspend the cuttings under zero
shear conditions:
The gel structure is caused by time dependant attractive forces
which develop in the fluid.
The longer the fluid is static the stronger these forces become
The gel structure should be easily broken
The gel properties are especially important for deviated and
horizontal wells as the distance solids have to settle is very small
4) Minimize Formation Damage
Damage to the formation while drilling to the
reservoir:
Formation swelling (Normally clay and Salt formations)
Washouts (Clay and Salt formations or any
unconsolidated formation)
This can result in:
Difficult directional control
Poor zonal isolation
Excess mud and cement costs
Poor Hole Cleaning
Stuck Pipe
Difficult fishing jobs
4) Minimize Formation Damage

Damage to the reservoir will result in loss of production or

the need for remedial treatment. This can result from:

Solids blocking reservoir pores

Emulsion droplets blocking reservoir pores
Swelling clays
Ions from the formation and drilling fluid forming
insoluble salts
5) Isolate the Fluid From the Formation
The differential pressure forces fluid into the wellbore,
resulting in whole mud or filtrate entering the formation.
Either, or both, of these is undesirable because:

The loss of whole mud into the wellbore is expensive

and damaging

The loss of filtrate into the wellbore may cause

formation damage
5) Isolate the Fluid From the Formation
The flow of fluid is affected by the formation of a filter cake

The filter cake reduces the flow of fluid into the formation.
Special additives are added to improve the cake quality:
Bridging material
Plate like material
Plugging material

The filter cake should be thin with a low permeability
This avoids reducing the effective hole diameter
It also reduces the chance of differential sticking
6) Cooling and Lubrication
The drilling fluid removes heat from the bit which is then
dispersed at the surface
Fluid formulations are not changed to improve this function
Very occasionally the temperature of the fluid exceeds the
flash point. In this case it is necessary to improve surface
cooling
Extra lubrication may be required between the drill string and
the casing or wellbore, especially in directional wells
Liquid additives are used (IDLUBE), or Oil based mud
Solid additives are sometimes used such as glass beads or
nut plug
Drill pipe rubbers are sometimes added to reduce wear
between the casing and drill pipe
7) Support Part of the Tubular Weight

Aids in supporting part of the weight of the drill string and

casing
The degree of buoyancy is directly proportional to the
density of the fluid.

The fluid density is never changed to

increase the buoyancy
8) Maximize Penetration Rates
The fluid properties greatly influence penetration rates by:
Removing cuttings from below the bit and wellbore
Reducing the cushioning effect of solids between the bit
teeth and the formation
Reducing the hydrostatic differential
Increasing the jet velocity

Bits
Rig days,
Bits,
Rig days
Ft/Bit.

Ft/Bit

5 10
Solids Content (%volume)
9) Control Corrosion
The fluid should be non corrosive to the:

Drill string
Casing
Surface equipment Corrosion leads to loss of

Corrosion can lead to:

Wash outs
Twist offs &
Pump failure
Surface Leaks
10) Secure Maximum Hole Information
The operator will always require the following
information:

Rock type being drilled

The cuttings should not dissolve or disintegrate
Analyses of gases
The gases should separate easily from the mud
The fluid should have a defined resistivity
Formation resistivity measurements need to be made
11) Other Functions

Power Downhole motors

Turbines to turn the bit or power MWD / LWD equipment

Transfer information from measurement equipment to

the surface

This is done with a pressure pulse

Basic Properties and Measurements
The main properties of a drilling fluid are:
Density
Rheology
Fluid loss
Inhibition
Solids Content

These must all be achieved in an environmentally friendly, safe

and cost effective way.

Density

By convention the density is called the mud weight

The units are ppg or g/cc
Occasionally lbs/ft3 or psi/1000ft are used

Correct and frequent measurement is essential. This is

normally done using a mud balance.

Checks are carried out every 15 or 30 minutes.

 Density
CALIBRATE
There are two types of balance KEEP HOLE BY ADDING/
Pressurized FREE TO REMOVING
Non Pressurized EXPEL MUD LEAD SHOT
SIGHT GLASS
Non - Pressurized:
4 scale balance SCALE BAR

Pressurized Balance:
The density is measured
under pressure so the SLIDING WEIGHT
effects of gas entrapment
are minimized
 Density - Balancing Formation Pressures
Zones of differing pressures will be drilled between
casing points
The mud weight must be :
Below the frac point of the weakest formation
Above the highest pore pressure observed

POR
The ECD must be taken into account to avoid

EC

FRA
EP
fracturing the formation

D
RES

C
Should have at least 0.5 ppg EMW between

TUR
depth
ECD and Fracture Pressure (kick tolerance)

S
URE

E PR
The differential pressure should be kept low to Safe drilling

ESS
improve ROPs

URE
A differential pressure equivalent to 0.2-0.5 Unsafe drilling
ppg should be kept as a safety margin (Mud weight
will fracture
A negative differential (mud, air or foam) is formation)
sometimes used to drill :
Hard formations EQUIVALENT MUD WEIGHT

Lost circulation zones

Signs of Excessive Density
Excessive density can
contribute to a number of hole
problems:

Lost Circulation
Differential Sticking
Slow ROPs
Ballooning
PUMPS OFF PUMPS ON
 Signs of Insufficient Density
Hole not filling correctly on trips Background gas
Formation fluid being swabbed into
the hole
Increased drag experienced on Trip gas seen
on bottoms
connections and trips up after a trip

Salt or plastic formations Connection gas

Time
squeezing into the well bore
Gain in fluid
Formation fluid entering the well
bore. (Well flowing or kicking)
Unexplained increase in gas recording
Some gas may be released from
ground cuttings
Connection gas
Increase in background gas,
could be due to increased pore
space in cuttings or increased
formation pressure.
Circulate bottoms up to tell the
difference
Gas level % or units
 Viscosity
Viscosity is the resistance of Fill mud to mark
fluids to flow
How is viscosity measured?
Marsh Funnel Measure time required
Results are very temperature to fill one quart in
dependent second
Used to give trends
Torsion Spring
Derrickman records results every 1/2
hour Dial Plate
Fann Viscometer
Can measure different shear stresses
for different shear rates Bob
Should be used with a heated cup to Variable speed
give readings at a set temperature rotation sleeve
Also used to measure gel strengths
Fann Rotational Viscometer

Torsional
Spring

Inner
Inner
Cylinder
Cylinder
Shaft
Shaft
Bearing
Bearing
Rotor

Bob
Bob
Cup
Cup
 Viscosity
Viscosity is the resistance of the fluid to flow
Viscosity is required in addition to flow rate to clean the hole
Several models have been developed to help understand the behaviour
of different fluids in laminar flow
Newtonian model - e.g. Water, glycerine, oil
Bingham Plastic Model - Cement, Flocculated fluids : high solids muds
Power Law Model - Low solids polymer muds, Oil based muds
shear stress (flow pressure)
Viscosity = shear rate (flow rate)

The units can be, Centipoise or lbs/100ft2 or Pascals and Dynes/cm2

 Newtonian Fluids

The viscosity of a Newtonian

fluid can be represented by a

Shear stress
straight line passing through the
origin when plotted on a graph of
shear stress versus shear rate.
Increases in shear rate are directly
proprtional to increases in shear
stress. 0
Shear rate (
 Bingham Plastic Model
PV = 600 - 300 (cps)
The plastic viscosity is due to the physical size and
presence of any solids or emulsified droplets in the
fluid. yPV
The PV should be as low as possible
To reduce the PV reduce the solids

Shear stress
Yield Point = 300 - PV (lbs/100ft2)
The yield point is the viscosity due to the chemical
attraction between the particles. PV
To increase the YP add products with attractive
forces. y
To reduce add products which reduce attractive
forces
The PV for cements = (300 - 100 )*1.5 Shear rate (
The high g forces generated by the 600 forces
solids to the outside of the sleeve and distorts the
reading
 Power Law Model
n = 3.32 log 600 (no dimensions)
300

Shear stress
n is the power law index and indicates the
degree of non Newtonian behaviour
n should be as low as possible, the effective = k n
viscosity decreases with shear rate
low n values give flat flow profiles
Shear rate (
Additives with attractive forces reduce n

K = 600 (lbs/100ft2)

Shear stress

1022n
k is the consistency index and indicates the n
K
viscosity of the liquid phase and solids
content
Log Shear rate (
anything which increases the low shear
viscosity will increase k.
 Shear Rates in the Circulating System
Shear rate (sec-1) 120V
Dh - Dp

SECTION SHEAR
D is in mm, and V = velocity in cm/sec . RATE (S-1)
EQUIVALENT
FANN RPM
Drill String
170-10k
Monitor the shear stress of the fluid at 100+
Bit
the shear rates in the annulus 10k-100k
None
Annulus
5-17-=0
3-100
Pump Hi Vis pills regularly, if hole is not Pits
0-3
being cleaned increase shear stress for 0-3
SCE*
corresponding shear rate 170-1000
100-600

* Solids Control Equipment

Many operators request 3 and 6 RPM
readings
Gel Strengths

The Gel strengths refers to the increase in viscosity at zero

shear rate

It is the measure of the attractive forces under static conditions

Maximum shear stress at 3 RPM

It is measured after :
s
ss iv e g el strength
Progre
10 seconds

Flat gel strengths

10 minutes

30 minutes Time at zero shear rate

Effects of Excessive Viscosity
Increased pump pressure

Increased risk of swabbing / surging the hole

Loss of mud at the shakers

Poor efficiency of the solids control equipment

Increased risk of fracturing the formation, especially with

high gel strengths

Poor mud removal for cementing operations

Effects of Low Viscosities
Poor hole cleaning
Cuttings bed
Hole fill
Stuck pipe
Cuttings degradation

Overloading of the annulus increasing the hydrostatic

Increased erosion if the fluid is in turbulent flow

Barite sag or settlement

Filtration
The passage of filtrate into the formation due to the
differential pressure

If the solids cannot block the pores and/or fractures then mud
will flow into the formation (lost circulation)

The solids in the mud usually forms as a filter cake which

prevents excessive fluid loss, the filter cake should :

Be thin
Have a low permeability - correct solids distribution
Have a low friction coefficient
Filtration
Dynamic Filtration
cake builds until rate of erosion equals rate of deposition
when filter cake reaches equilibrium thickness fluid loss is
constant
Static Filtration
cake growth with time
rate of filtration continues to decrease
static cake is thicker than dynamic cake
static rate of filtration is less
 Static Filtration
Occurs during no flow situations
The cake thickness increases with time
The rate of filtration decreases with time
A simplified equation is:

q = k t e

Fluid loss (cc)

q = volume of filtrate (c.c.)
k = constant
t = time (sec)
} spurt loss
e = spurt loss
t (mins)

The spurt loss is the volume of fluid that gets through the filter paper
before the filter cake forms
 Dynamic Filtration
Occurs while circulating
The rate of erosion = rate of build up of the cake
The cake stays the same thickness

Darcys equation governs the filtration rate

dq K x P x A
=
dt tx

q = volume of filtrate (c.c.)

k = permeability of cake (darcies)
A = area (cm2)
= liquid phase viscosity (cps)
t = thickness of cake (cm)
P = differential pressure (atm)
 Temperature and Pressure Effects
For static filtration:

q = volume of filtrate (c.c.)

q k P
P = differential pressure
This approximation assumes P has no effect on the permeability or filtrate
viscosity, usually increasing P will decrease the permeability.
Increasing the temperature will increase the filtration rate
It reduces the viscosity of the filtrate
It changes the flocculation and aggregation equilibria
Polymeric fluid loss additives may degrade
Lignite/Gilsonite type derivatives will become more malleable
 Incorrect Filter Rates
Rate too low will result in :
WHAT
Excessive cost HAPPENS IF I
GET THE
Slight reduction in ROP FLUID LOSS
WRONG ?
Rate too high will result in :
Formation damage, clays and
reservoir
Thick filter cakes which cause :
Differential sticking
Excess drag
The filtration rate must be adjusted to
deal with all the formation encountered in
the interval
Inhibition
Reducing the hydration or dispersion of clays and
shales by chemical means

60% of the worlds sedimentary rocks are Shales - most

require some degree of inhibition

Generally the type of drilling fluid used is based on the

level of inhibition required
Inhibition
Insufficient levels of inhibition in the drilling fluid
will lead to a reaction from the formation. This can
take several forms:

Clay swelling
Increases torque and drag
Increased tripping time
Mud rings - Gumbo attacks
Stuck pipe or casing
Inhibition

Clay disintegration
Washouts - poor hole cleaning
Increased viscosity
Difficult mud removal
Poor solids removal efficiency
Increased mud costs
Directional control difficulties

Clay disintegration usually follows clay swelling

 Mechanisms of Inhibition
Oil wetting the surface rocks
Adding glycols/glycerols
Adding inhibiting cations
Reducing the pH
Adding inhibiting polymers
Dont let those
Reducing the fluid loss shale problems
get on top of you
Increasing the Chloride content
 Property Guidelines
Property Top Hole 17 1/2 - 16 12 1/4 8 1/2
Flow rate A.F.A.P. 900+ 500 - 700 300 - 400
YP (lb/100ft2) 30+ 25 - 35 20 - 25 18 - 25
3 RPM Fann 25 15 10 5
Fluid Loss (cc) n/c 10 - 15 5 - 10 3-5
10 min gel 35 max 35 max 35 max 35 max

Mud Weight: as required

LGS: Less than 6% for WBM
PV: ALAP
Mf: Less than 1 cc (Pf/Mf ratio: below 2 cc unless Pf is < 1cc)
Pf: > 1 cc for WBM
K+/Cl- ratio: > 0.6 for KCl muds
AV: > 80 feet/minute
Solids
Why are solids so important to the DF engineer?

Solids and drilled solids in particular are the single most

important contaminant in the mud system.

We usually have both desirable and undesirable solids in

the fluid.

Removing the undesirable solids is the first priority but

this can sometimes result in desirable solids being lost
from the system.
 Importance of Solids Control
The nature and content of suspended solids directly affects key
properties of the drilling fluid
Density, rheology, filter cake properties,...
These impact drilling economics and the environment
ROP
Hole cleaning
Differential sticking
Dilution volume
Formation damage
Effective solids control requires an effective monitoring tool,
allowing frequent and accurate determination of the solids
content in the circulating system
 API Mud Retort
Retort distillation suffers several
limitations
Time consuming (> 45 min) API Checks Distillation Other
- Mud Density - Water volume - Brine type
Operator dependent - Cl- in brine - Oil volume - SG of HGS
Reproducibility may be poor - Oil density - Solids volume - SG of LGS
(worse than 5 %)

Results may be affected by

Sample volume RETORT CALCULATIONS
Duration of distillation
Incomplete vapour condensation
Foam and emulsion
Interpretation of visual reading
HGS LGS Salt
API Retort

API Retort Connection Condenser

Mud Sample

Heating Jacket
Graduate Cylinder
 Retort Accuracy
12.0 lb/gal drilling fluid (1.44 SG) with 6% v/v LGS
Ideal
41.7 ml water in 50 ml retort 10.6 % v/v HGS
83.4 % v/v water and 16.6 % v/v solids
6.0 % v/v LGS
Field accuracy 1ml 2 % v/v)

If 42.7 ml measured
12.7 % v/v HGS
85.4 % v/v water and 14.6 % v/v solids
1.9 % v/v LGS

If 40.7 ml measured 8.5 % v/v HGS

81.4 % v/v water and 18.6 % v/v solids
10.1 % v/v LGS
 MSM* Package
MSM* technique offers several advantages over mud retort
Sample turnaround time of about 10 minutes
No sample preparation required
Operator independent
Reproducibility better than 5%
Direct determination of HGS and liquid phase

Making possible frequent and accurate determinations of

solids contents in drilling fluids and solids control streams
 MSM* Mud Solids Monitor
Rapid and precise analysis of
barite, LGS, K+ and Cl-
Operator independent
Sample preparation and
analysis time of ~ 10 mins
More accurate than mud retort
Used for solids control
equipment discharges
Available for WBM, OBM and
ULTIDRILL* System
 Measurement Method
Elemental analysis based on interaction of electro-magnetic
radiation with matter
Main interaction results in X-Ray fluorescence
Excitation of atom by incident photon and inner shell electron removed
Replacement by outer shell electron with emission of X-ray photon
Energy of emitted photon is characteristic of the atom
Number photons collected related to concentration of element in sample

Incident Characteristic
X photon XRF photon

Ejected
electron
Accuracy of MSM Prediction
12.0 lb/gal drilling fluid with 6.0 % v/v LGS and 10.6 % v/v HGS
For retort assume typical 1ml error on 50ml measurement
MSM errors known from modelling:
14.0 g/l (5.0 lb/bbl) HGS and 27.0 g/l (9.4 lb/bbl) LGS

HGS Legend
MSM
Retort
LGS

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
% v/v of drilling fluid
Advantages of the MSM Package
The MSM package provides a fast, accurate analysis
of the nature and content of the suspended solids in
the drilling fluid
As well as providing output on the HGS, LGS and liquid
phases in drilling fluids, information is also reported
regarding some ion contents of the aqueous phase
The MSM technique is more accurate, quicker, less
operator dependent, more reliable and reproducible
than the mud retort
Solids control equipment efficiencies can now be
monitored for optimal performance