CBEg3152

Process Dynamics and Control

Chapter One
Introductory Concepts
 1.1. Introduction to Process Control
The two main subjects of this course are
process dynamics (PD) and process control
(PC).
The term PD refers to unsteady-state (or
transient) process behavior.
The primary objective of PC is to maintain a process at
the desired operating conditions, safely and efficiently,
while satisfying environmental and product quality
requirements.

The subject of process control is concerned

with how to achieve these goals.
 What is a process?
Process is the methods of changing or refining
raw materials to create end products using
chemical and physical operations.
In practice, the term process tends to be used for both
the processing operation and the processing equipment.
The raw materials, which either pass through or
remain in a liquid, gaseous, or slurry (a mix of solids
and liquids) state during the process, are
transferred, measured, mixed, heated or cooled,
filtered, stored, or handled in some other way to
produce the end product.
 A chemical plant is an arrangement of
processing units (reactors, heat exchangers,
pumps, distillation columns, absorbers,
evaporators, tanks, etc.), integrated with one
another in a systematic input feedstock) into
desired products using available sources of
energy, in the economic way and rational
manner.

The plant's overall objective is to convert

certain raw materials (input feedstock) into
desired products using available sources of
energy, in the most economic way.
A process variable is a condition of the process fluid
that can change the manufacturing process in some way.
Common process variables include:
Pressure
Flow rate
Level
Temperature
The set point is a value for a process
variable that is desired to be
maintained.
Process control is the methods that are
used to control process variables when
manufacturing a product.
 For example, factors such as:
the proportion of one ingredient
to another,
the temperature of the
materials,
how well the ingredients are
mixed, and
the pressure under which the
materials are held can
significantly impact the quality of
an end product.
 The major objectives of process
control are satisfying requirement
with regard to:
Safety
Product specification
Environmental regulation
Operational constraints
Economics (minimum cost and
maximum profit)
There are three general classes of needs that a
control system is called to satisfy:
Suppress the influence of external disturbances,
Ensure the stability of a chemical process,
Optimize the performance of a chemical process.
Manufacturers control the production process for three
reasons:
Reduce variability
Increase efficiency
Ensure safety
Control loops in the process control industry work in the
same way, requiring three tasks to occur:
Measurement
Comparison
Adjustment
 The Importance of Process Control
Refining, combining, handling, and otherwise
manipulating raw materials to profitably
produce end products can be a precise,
demanding, and potentially non-hazardous
process.
Small changes in a process can have a large
impact on the end result.
Variations in proportions, temperature,
flowrate, turbulence, and many other factors
must be carefully and consistently controlled
to produce the desired end product with a
minimum of raw materials and energy.
 The focus of the engineer must be on the process.
The dynamic behavior of the individual units and
the process as a whole is to be understood.
It is always the best to utilize the simplest control
system that will achieve the desired objectives.
The design of a process determines how it will
respond dynamically and how it can be
controlled.
 Why is Control Necessary?
There are two main reasons for control.
to maintain the measured variable at its
desired value when disturbances occur.
to respond to changes in the desired
value.
In the analysis of plant operation the
desired values are determined by control
objectives.
 Classification of Variables in a Chemical
Process
The variables associated with a chemical process
are classified into two:
1) Input variables: which denote the effect of the
surroundings on a chemical process (variables
that affect the process)
2) Output variables: which denote the effect of
the process on the surroundings (variables that
are affected by the process).
 The input variables can be further classified into
the two categories:
a) Manipulated (or adjustable) variables: if their
values can be adjusted freely by the human
operator or a control mechanism.
b) Disturbances (load): if their values are not the result
of adjustment by an operator or a control system.
The output variables are also classified into the
two categories:
a) Measured output variables: if their values are
known by directly measuring them, and
b) Unmeasured output variables: if they are not or
cannot be measured directly.
 The main categories of measurements used in
process control are temperature, pressure, flow
rate, liquid level, and composition.

Design steps of a control system

a) Define Control Objectives
b) Identifying and classifying variables
c) Selecting the controller configurations
d) Selecting the manipulated variables
e) Designing the controllers
a) Define Control Objectives
"What are the operational objectives that a control
system is called to achieve?
b) Identifying and classifying variables
"What variables should we measure in order to
monitor the operational performance of a plant?"
c) Selecting the controller configurations
"What is the best control configuration for a given
chemical process control situation?
d) Selecting the manipulated variables
"What are the manipulated variables to be used in
order to control a chemical process?
e) Designing the controllers
"How is the information taken from the measurements
used to adjust the values of the manipulated
 Process Design
A key factor in control engineering is the design
of the process so that it can be controlled well.
For this purpose systems should be responsive.
A responsive control system means the
controlled variable responds quickly to
adjustments in the manipulated variable.
Frequency and magnitude of disturbances
should be reduced.
 Control Configurations
There are three most common types of control
configurations .
1) Feedback: measure the controlled variables
(output variables) and adjust the manipulated
variables.
The objective is to keep the controlled variables at
desired levels (set points).
Advantage: Corrective action is taken regardless
of the source of the disturbance.
Disadvantage: The controlled variable must be
deviate from the set point before corrective action
is taken.
2) Feed forward: measure the disturbances
variables and adjust the manipulated variables.
The objective is to keep the values of the
controlled output variables at desired levels.
Advantages: If all sources of the disturbances
are known and these values can be measured
accurately. Perfect Control !
Disadvantages: No corrective action for
unmeasured disturbances.
In industrial applications, feedfoward control
should be used in combination with feedback
control.
3) Inferential: take secondary measurements and
estimate the values of the primary
measurements, because the controlled variables
are not measured, to adjust the values of the
manipulated variables.
The objective is to keep the (unmeasured)
controlled variables at desired levels.
The estimator uses the values of the available
measured outputs, along with the material and
energy balances that govern the process, to
compute mathematically (estimate) the values of
the unmeasured controlled variables.
 Error is the difference between the measured variable
and the set-point and can be either positive or negative.
The objective of any control scheme is to minimize or
eliminate error.
The magnitude of the error is simply the deviation
between the values of the set-point and the process
variable.
A load disturbance is an undesired change in one of the
factors that can affect the process variable.
Example 1: Continuous stirred-tank heater (CSTR)
Assume that inlet temperature changes with time. How can we
ensure that T remains at or near the set point TR?
 Possible Strategies
1. Measure T and adjust Q .
2. Measure Ti and adjust Q.
3. Measure T and adjust w.
4. Measure Ti and adjust w.
5. Measure T and Ti and adjust Q.
6. Measure T and Ti and adjust w.
7. Place a heat exchanger on the inlet stream.
8. Use a large tank.
Classification
1 & 3; Feedback control
2 & 4; Feedfoward control
5 & 6; Feedfoward-Feedback control
7 & 8; Design change
Feedback control configuration
Example 2: Tank heater system
Assume that inlet temperature changes with time. How can we
ensure that T remains at or near the set point TR?
Disturbances inputs: Fi and Ti
Manipulated inputs: Fst
Measured outputs: V and T
Fi flow rate in (m3/min)
Ti - inlet temp (oF)
Fs steam mass flow rate (kg/min)
Ts set point
F flow rate outgoing liquid
T temp stream leaving
The objective of the tank heater are to:
a) Keep the effluent T at a desired value Ts
b) Keep the volume of the liquid at desired value Vs
Control action is needed to keep T and V at the desired
values.
 Feedback control configuration
T is measured
and compared
with Ts
Error = Ts T is
sent to a
controller
The controller
takes a corrective
action based on
the error
h is controlled output
F is manipulated variable
Fi and Ti are disturbance inputs
Feed-forward Control Configuration
 Case (a): xB can be measured

37
 Case (b): ): xB cannot be measured

38
 Control types
1) MIMO (multiple input multiple output): a system
having more than one manipulated variables and more than
one output variables.
2) SISO (single input single output): a system with one
manipulated and one controlled output variables.
Criteria in selecting manipulated variables:
The choice of appropriate manipulated variables should
affect the performance of control systems significantly.
In general the manipulated variables:
Should have direct and strong effect on the controlled
variables
Be simple to adjust
Eg. Flow rates can be adjusted easily with a control valve
 Instruments of a control system
The hardware elements involved in a process control
system are the following:
1. Chemical Process
2. Sensors or the measuring instruments
3. Transmission lines
4. Transducers
5. Transmitters
6. The controller
7. The final control element
1) Chemical Process: It represents the material equipment
together with the physical or chemical operations that
occur there.
2) Sensors or the measuring instruments: the
instruments used to measure the variables (disturbances,
controlled output or secondary output variables) and are
the main sources of information about what is going on
in the process.
Characteristic examples are:
thermocouples or resistance thermometers: for
measuring the temperature,
venture meters: for measuring the flow rate,
gas chromatographs: for measuring the composition of a
stream, etc.
 Factors affecting sensors selecting
Accuracy: conforming with or closeness to the true value of
the quantity being measured.
Precision: the repeatability of the reading taken of the
same value by the same instruments.
Resolution: the smallest change in the input signal which
can be detected by the instruments.
Sensitivity: the measure of the change in output caused per
unit change in input.
Cost effective
3) Transmission lines: used to carry the
measurement signal from the measuring device
to the controller.
Cables for electrical signals
Tubes for pneumatic signals
4) Transducers: a device used to change one type
of signals to another. A transducer is a device
that translates a mechanical signal into an
electrical signal. Eg. I/P: current (electrical
signal) to pressure (pneumatic signal).
A converter is a device that converts one type of signal
into another type of signal.
For example, a converter may convert current into
voltage
5) Transmitters: is a device that converts a reading from a
sensor or transducer into a standard signal and transmits
that signal to a monitor or controller.
Transmitter types include:
Pressure transmitters (PT)
Flow transmitters(FT)
Temperature transmitters(TT)
Level transmitters (LT)
An indicator is a human-readable device that displays
information about the process.
A recorder is a device that records the output of a
measurement devices.
6) Controller: is a device that receives data from a
measurement instrument, compares that data to a
programmed set-point, and, if necessary, signals a
control element to take corrective action.
Controllers may perform complex mathematical
functions to compare a set of data to set-point or they
may perform simple addition or subtraction functions to
make comparisons.
Controllers always have an ability to receive input, to
perform a mathematical function with the input, and to
produce an output signal.
7) The final control element: the hardware element that
implements in real life the decision taken by the controller.
It adjusts the value of the manipulated variable responses to
the signal from the controller.
The most frequently used in chemical process industries
final control element is the control valve (pneumatic valve).

The other final control elements are:

Relay switches (on-off)
Variables speed pump
Variables speed motors
 Control Valves
A control valve works on the principle of treating to
adjust the manipulated variables.
In automatic control installation, it normally consist of
two parts
The actuator, which translates the output signal from
the controller into an action force.
The body, which alters the flow rates of the
manipulated variables to the required amount.
There are three important aspects of a control valve:
Action of the valve (FO or FC)
The size of the valve (small or large)
The characteristics of the valve (linear or equal
percentage)
 1) Action of the valve: is the flow position of the
valve when the signal from the controller fails.
In case of such a failure there are two most
common actions
Completely open AC (Air to- close)
FO (fail open)
Completely close AO (air - open)
FC (fail - close)
Safety and economic analysis are the decisive factors in
determining the action of the valve.
2) Size of the valve: valves are sized so that
there is a balance b/n effective control action
and the operating cost.
Small valves are preferred from control point
of view.
Large valves are preferred from operating cost
point of view.
Example: Pneumatic control valves are to be
specified for the applications listed below. State
whether an A-O or A-C valve should be specified
for the following manipulated variables and give
reason(s).
a) Steam pressure in a reactor heating coil.
b) Flow rate of reactants into a polymerization reactor.
c) Flow of effluent from a wastewater treatment holding
tank into a river.
d) Flow of cooling water to a distillation condenser.
Solution:
a) A-O (fail closed) to make sure that a transmitter failure
will not cause the reactor to overheat, which is usually
more serious than having it operate at too Iowa
temperature.
b) The choice would depend on the application: A-O (fail
closed) to prevent the reactor from being flooded with
excessive reactants, A-C (fail open) if the reactor flow
rate normally is close to the maximum flow rate of the
valve so that opening the valve fully would cause
relatively little change in operating conditions.
c) A-O (fail closed) to prevent excessive and perhaps
untreated waste from entering the stream.
d) A-C (fail open) to ensure that overhead vapor is
completely condensed before it reaches the receiver.
3) Control valve characteristics: is the relationship b/n the
step position of the valve and the flow rate of the
manipulated variable.
 1.2. Theoretical Models of Chemical Processes
MM is a mathematical abstraction of a real process.
It is at best approximation of real process.
To analyze the behavior of a process, a
mathematical representation of the physical and
chemical phenomenon taking place in it is essential
and this representation constitutes the MM.
The activities leading to the construction of the
model is called modeling.
The main uses of mathematical modeling are:
To improve understanding of the process
To train plant operating personal
To design control strategy for new plant
To select controller settings
To design the controller law
To optimize process operating conditions
There are three types of MM:
Theoretical models: models developed using the
principles of physics, chemistry and other
engineering principles.
Eg. Reaction rate coefficients, Heat transfer
coefficients
Empirical models: models obtained from mm
(statistical) analysis of process operating data.
Semi-empirical models: a combination of
theoretical and empirical models with one or
more parameters to be evaluated from plant data.
Six-step Modeling Procedure
We apply this procedure
1. Define Goals
to many physical systems
2. Prepare information
overall material balance
3. Formulate the model
component material balance
4. Determine the solution
energy balances
5. Analyze Results
6. Validate the Model
Examples of variable selection
liquid level total mass in liquid
pressure total moles in vapor
temperature energy balance
concentration component mass
 Conservation Balances
Overall Material
{Accumulation of mass}= {Mass in} {Mass
out}
Component
{Accumulation Material
of = {Component - {Component +
component mass} mass in} mass out}
{Generation
State variables and State equations
of component
State variables is a set of fundamental quantities
mass}
whose value describe the natural state of a given
system.
State equations is a set of equations in the variables
which describe how the natural state of the given
system change with time.
The three fundamental quantities that describe most
of the chemical process are mass, energy and
Dynamic versus Steady state
Steady state is when the accumulation
term is not found.
A dynamic (unsteady state) when the
accumulation term is required.
A dynamic models of a chemical process
invariably consists of one or more
differential equations.
Modeling objectives is to describe
process dynamics based on the laws of
conservation of mass, energy and
momentum.
 Degree of Freedom
The degrees of freedom F is the number or process
variables that must be specified in order to be able to
determine the remaining process variables.
where NV is the total number of process variables, and NE is
the number of independent equations.
According to the value of f, we distinguish the ff cases:
Case -1: if f = 0, (unique solution), exactly specified
Case -2: if f > 0, (no-solution), over specified
Case -1: if f < 0, (multiple solution), under specified
Mathematical Modeling of Common chemical Processes
General balances taken in mathematical modeling
1) Mathematical Model: Surge tank (Liquid)
Modeling objective:
Control of tank level
Fundamental quantity: Mass
Assumptions: Incompressible
flow
Total mass in system
= rV = rAh
Flow in = rFin
Flow out = rF
Total mass at time: m(t) = rAh(t)
Total mass at time: m(t+t) = rAh(t+ t)
Accumulation =
rAh(t+ t) - rAh(t) = t(rFin- rF),
Model consistency: Can we solve this equation?
Variables: h, r, Fin, F, A = 5
Constants: r, A 2
Inputs: Fin, F 2
Unknowns: h 1
Equations: 1
Degrees of freedom 0
There exists a solution.
2) Mathematical Model: A Stirred Tank Heater
 Objective:Control tank temperature
Fundamental quantity: Energy
Assumptions: Incompressible flow
Under constant hold-up and constant mean pressure
(small pressure changes)
Balance equation can be written in terms of the enthalpies
of the various streams

Typically work done on system by external forces is

negligible

Assume that the heat capacities

are constant such that
 After
substitutin,

Model Consistency:
Variables: T, F, V, Tin, Q, Cp, r 7
Constants: V, Cp, r 3
Inputs: F, Tin, Q 3
Unknown: T 1
Equations 1 => DF = 0
There exists a unique solution.
3) Mathematical Model: A Stirred Tank Heater in
jacketed
Consider a simple liquid phase, non-isothermal,
irreversible, exothermic reaction: A B, where -
rA = kCA , Hr = - and the state variables
( / )
are V, CA, T and TC
Solution: Assumption Tr = 0 and constant
density and specific heat capacity
4) Additional Examples of Mathematical Modeling An Ideal
Binary Distillation Column
Assumptions:
constant vapor holdup:
equal molar heats of vaporization for A and B
negligible heat loss
constant relative volativility
100% tray efficiency
neglect dynamics of condenser and reboiler
neglect momentum balance for each tray
 Modeling Difficulties
i) Poorly understood processes
To understand completely the physical and chemical
phenomena occurring in a chemical process is virtually
impossible. for example
Multi-component reaction system
Vapor-liquid or liquid-liquid thermodynamic
equilibrium for multi-component system
Heat and mass transfer interactions in distillation
columns with non-ideal multi-component mixtures
ii) Imprecisely known parameters
Changing the parameters with time eg. Activity of
catalyst and overall heat transfer coefficient.
iii) Size and complexity of a model
Care must be exercised that the size and complexity of a
model do not exceed certain manageable levels, beyond
which the model loses its value and becomes less
attractive.