for today

If better is possible, good is not enough.

-Anonymous.

The talent of success is nothing more than

doing what you can do well and doing well
whatever you do.
-Longfellow
1
 for today
More die of idleness than of hard work.
-Anonymous.

All things are difficult, before they are easy.

-Thomas Fuller

2
 Electrical Properties

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How are electrical conductance and resistance
characterized?
What are the physical phenomena that distinguish
conductors, semiconductors, and insulators?
For metals, how is conductivity affected by
imperfections, T, and deformation?
For semiconductors, how is conductivity affected
by impurities (doping) and T?

3
 View of an Integrated Circuit
Integrated circuits are used to store information in a digital format.
Example: Flash Memory cards.
Scanning electron microscope images of an IC:
Al (d) (a)
(d)

Si
(doped)
45 mm 0.5 mm
A dot map showing location of Si (a semiconductor):
-- Si shows up as light regions. (b)

A dot map showing location of Al (a conductor):

-- Al shows up as light regions.
(c)

Fig. (d) from Fig. (a), Callister 7e. (Fig. is courtesy Nick
Gonzales, National Semiconductor Corp., West Jordan,
UT.) Fig. (a), (b), (c) from Fig. , Callister 7e.
4
 Electrical Conduction

When an electrical potential V [volts, J/C] is applied across a

piece of material, a current of magnitude I [amperes, C/s]
flows. In most metals, at low values of V, the current is
proportional to V, and can be described by Ohm's law I = V/R

Ohm's Law:
DV = I R
voltage drop (volts = J/C) resistance (Ohms)
C = Coulomb current (amps = C/s)
DV I
A
(cross
-
sect. L eA I
area) DV
L
1
L L
R
A A 5
 Resistivity, and Conductivity,
R is the electrical resistance [ohms,]. R depends on the intrinsic
resistivity of the material [-m] and on the geometry (length, l
and area, A through which the current passes):

R = l/A
Resistivity, and Conductivity, :
-- geometry-independent forms of Ohm's Law
-- Resistivity is a material property & is independent of sample

DV I resistivity
E: electric (Ohm-m)
field L A
intensity J: current density
1
Resistance: L L conductivity
R
A A
6
 Figure shows the schematic representation of the apparatus used
to measure electrical resistivity

In most materials (e.g. metals), the current is carried by electrons

(electronic conduction). In ionic crystals, the charge carriers are ions
(ionic conduction).
 Electrical Properties
Which will conduct more electricity?

RA VA

2D I

Analogous to flow of water in a pipe

So resistance depends on sample
geometry, etc.

8
 Electrical conductivity

The electrical conductivity (the ability of a substance to conduct

an electric current) is the inverse of the resistivity:
= 1/

Since the electric field intensity in the material is E= V/l,

Ohm's law can be rewritten in terms of the
current density, J = I/A as:

J=E

Electrical conductivity varies between different materials by

over 27 orders of magnitude, the greatest variation of any
physical property

9
 Electrical conductivity

Metals: > 105(.m)-1

Semiconductors: 10-6 < < 105(.m)-1
Insulators: < 10-6(.m)-1

10
 Definitions
Further definitions

J= <= another way to state Ohms law

current I
J current density like a flux
surface area A
electric field potential = V/ or (DV/D )

J = (DV/D )

Electron flux conductivity voltage gradient

Current carriers
electrons in most solids
ions can also carry (particularly in liquid solutions)
11
 Conductivity: Comparison
Room T values (Ohm-m)-1 = ( - m)-1
METALS conductors CERAMICS
-10
Silver 6.8 x 10 7 Soda-lime glass 10 -10-11
Copper 6.0 x 10 7 Concrete 10 -9
Iron 1.0 x 10 7 Aluminum oxide <10-13

SEMICONDUCTORS POLYMERS
-14
Silicon 4 x 10 -4 Polystyrene <10
Germanium 2 x 10 0 Polyethylene 10 -15-10-17
GaAs 10 -6
semiconductors insulators
Selected values from Tables 18.1, 18.3, and 18.4, Callister 7e.

12
13
 Example: Conductivity Problem
What is the minimum diameter (D) of the wire so that DV < 1.5 V?

100m
Cu wire - e- I = 2.5A +

DV

100m
< 1.5V
L DV
R 2.5A
A I
D 2
6.07 x 107 (Ohm-m)-1
4
Solve to get D > 1.87 mm

14
 Electronic Band Structures

Schematic plot of electron energy versus interatomic separation for an aggregate for an
aggregate of 12 atoms. (Shells (1,2,3 ..); Sub-shells (s,p,d,..))
15
 Electronic Band Structures
When atoms come together to form a solid, their valence
electrons interact with each other and with nuclei.

In addition, two specific quantum mechanical effects happen. First,

constraining the electrons to a small volume raises their energy, this
is called promotion. The second effect, limits the number of
electrons that can have the same energy.

As a result of these effects, the valence electrons of atoms form

wide electron energy bands when they form a solid. The bands
are separated by gaps, where electrons cannot exist.

16
 Band Structure
Valence band filled highest occupied energy levels
Conduction band empty lowest unoccupied energy levels

Conduction
band

valence band

Electron energy band structure and electron

energy versus interatomic separation for an
aggregate atoms.

17
Fermi Energy (EF) - highest filled state at 0 K
Conduction band - a partially filled or empty energy Band
Valence band the highest partially or completely filled band

Fig_ Various possible electron band structures in solids

 Conduction & Electron Transport
Metals (Conductors):
-- Thermal energy puts - +
many electrons into
a higher energy state. -

Energy States: Energy Energy

-- for metals nearby empty
energy states band
are accessible GAP empty
by thermal partly band
fluctuations. filled filled
valence

filled states
valence
filled states
band band

filled filled
band band
19
 Energy Band Structures and
Conductivity (metals)

In metals, highest occupied band is partially filled or bands

overlap.

Conduction occurs by promoting electrons into conducting

states, that starts right above the Fermi level. The conducting
states are separated from the valence band by an infinitesimal
amount.

Energy provided by an electric field is sufficient to excite many

electrons into conducting states. High conductivity.

20
 Energy States: Insulators &
Semiconductors
Insulators: Semiconductors:
-- Higher energy states not -- Higher energy states separated
accessible due to gap (> 2 eV). by smaller gap (< 2 eV).
Energy Energy
empty
band empty
? band
GAP GAP

filled filled

filled states
filled states

valence valence
band band

filled filled
band band
21
Energy Band Structures and Conductivity (semiconductors and insulators)

In semiconductors and insulators, electrons have to jump across the band gap into
conduction band to find conducting states above Ef

The energy needed for the jump may come from heat, or from irradiation at
sufficiently small wavelength.

The difference between semiconductors and insulators is that in semiconductors

electrons can reach the conduction band at ordinary temperatures, where in insulators
they cannot.

The probability that an electron reaches the conduction band is about exp(-Eg/2kT)
where Eg is the band gap. If this probability is < 10-24 one would not find a single
electron in the conduction band in a solid of 1 cm3.

This requires Eg/2kT > 55. At room temperature, 2kT =0.05 eV Eg > 2.8 eV
corresponds to an insulator.

An electron promoted into the conduction band leaves a hole (positive charge) in the
valence band, that can also participate in conduction. Holes exist in metals as well,
but are more important in semiconductors and insulators.
22
 Charge Carriers
Adapted from Fig. 18.6 (b), Callister 7e.

Two charge carrying mechanisms

Electron negative charge

Hole equal & opposite
positive charge

Move at different speeds - drift

velocity
Higher temp. promotes more electrons into the conduction band
as T
Electrons scattered by impurities, grain boundaries, etc.

23
 Electron Mobility
The force acting on the electron is -eE, where e is the electric charge.

This force produces a constant acceleration so that, in the absence of

obstacles the electron speeds up continuously in an electric field. This
is the case in vacuum (e.g. inside a TV tube) or in a perfect crystal
(this is a conclusion from quantum mechanics).

In a real solid, the electrons scatter by collisions with imperfections

and due to atomic thermal vibrations. frictional forces
resistance a net drift velocity of electron motion is established:
vd = meE.
where me electron mobility [m2/V-s]. The friction transfers part of
the energy supplied by the electric field into the lattice as heat. That is
how electric heaters work.

24
 Metals: Resistivity vs T, Impurities
Imperfections increase resistivity
-- grain boundaries
These act to scatter
-- dislocations
electrons so that they
-- impurity atoms take a less direct path.
-- vacancies
6
Resistivity
Resistivity,
(10 -8 Ohm-m)

5
increases with:
4 -- temperature
3 -- wt% impurity
2
1 = thermal
0 -200 -100 0 T (C) + impurity
Adapted from Fig. 18.8, Callister 7e. (Fig. 18.8 adapted from J.O. + deformation
Linde, Ann. Physik 5, p. 219 (1932); and C.A. Wert and R.M.
Thomson, Physics of Solids, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, 1970.) 25
 Conductivity / Resistivity of Metals
Influence of temperature:
Resistivity rises linearly with temperature (increasing thermal
vibrations and density of vacancies)
T = o + aT
Influence of impurities:
Impurities that form solid solution, I = Aci(1-ci)
where ci is impurity concentration, Two-phase alloy (a and b
phases): i = aVa + bV b
Influence of plastic deformation:

26
 Materials of Choice for Metal Conductors

One of the best material for electrical conduction (low resistivity) is

silver, but use restricted due to high cost

Most widely used conductor is copper: inexpensive, abundant, high s,

but rather soft cannot be used in applications where mechanical
strength is important.

Solid solution alloying and cold working improve strength but

decrease conductivity. Precipitation hardening is preferred, e.g. Cu-
Be alloy

When weight is important one uses aluminum, which is half as good

as Cu and more resistant to corrosion.

Heating elements require low (high R), and resistance to high

temperature oxidation: nickel chromium alloy

27
28
 Estimating Conductivity
Question:
-- Estimate the electrical conductivity of a Cu-Ni alloy
Adapted from Fig.
that has a yield strength of 125 MPa. 18.9, Callister 7e.
180
Yield strength (MPa)

(10 -8 Ohm-m)
50

Resistivity,
160
140 40
125 30
120
100 20
21 wt%Ni 10
80
60 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt. %Ni, (Concentration C) wt. %Ni, (Concentration C)
30x108 Ohm m
Adapted from Fig. 7.16(b), Callister 7e.

From step 1:
1
3.3x106 (Ohm m)1
CNi = 21 wt%Ni
29
 Pure Semiconductors:
Conductivity vs T
Data for Pure Silicon: Egap / kT
-- increases with T
undoped e
-- opposite to metals Energy
electrical conductivity, empty
(Ohm-m) -1 ? band
10 4 GAP
electrons
10 3 filled can cross

filled states
valence gap at
10 2 band
higher T
10 1
filled
10 0 pure band
(undoped)
10 -1
material band gap (eV)
10 -2 Si 1.11
50 10 0 1000
T(K) Ge 0.67
Adapted from Fig. 19.15, Callister 5e. (Fig. 19.15 GaP 2.25
adapted from G.L. Pearson and J. Bardeen, Phys. Rev.
75, p. 865, 1949.)
CdS 2.40
Selected values from Table 30
18.3, Callister 7e.
 Conduction in Terms of Electron and
Hole Migration

Concept of electrons and holes:

valence electron hole electron hole
electron Si atom
pair creation pair migration

- + - +

no applied applied applied

electric field electric field electric field
Electrical Conductivity given by:
Adapted from Fig. 18.11,
Callister 7e.
# holes/m 3
n e me p e m h
hole mobility
# electrons/m3 electron mobility
31
 Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Conduction
Intrinsic:
# electrons = # holes (n = p)
--case for pure Si
Extrinsic:
--n p
--occurs when impurities are added with a different
# valence electrons than the host (e.g., Si atoms)
n-type Extrinsic: (n >> p) p-type Extrinsic: (p >> n)
Phosphorus atom Boron atom
hole
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ conduction 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
n e me 4+ 5+ 4+ 4+
electron
4+ 3+ 4+ 4+ p e mh
valence
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ electron 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+

Adapted from Figs. 18.12(a)

no applied Si atom no applied
& 18.14(a), Callister 7e. electric field electric field
32
 p-n Rectifying Junction
Allows flow of electrons in one direction only (e.g., useful
to convert alternating current to direct current.
Processing: diffuse P into one side of a B-doped crystal.
Results: Adapted from Fig. 18.21, p-type n-type
Callister 7e. + + + - -
--No applied potential:
+ + - - -
no net current flow.
--Forward bias: carrier
flow through p-type and p-type+ - n-type
+ + -
n-type regions; holes and ++- - -
electrons recombine at + -
p-n junction; current flows.

--Reverse bias: carrier n-type -

+ p-type
flow away from p-n junction; - + + - - +
carrier conc. greatly reduced + + - -
at junction; little current flow.
33
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
Pure material semiconductors: e.g., silicon &
germanium
Group IVA materials
Compound semiconductors
III-V compounds
Ex: GaAs & InSb
II-VI compounds
Ex: CdS & ZnTe
The wider the electronegativity difference between
the elements the wider the energy gap.

34
 Doped Semiconductor: Conductivity vs. T
Data for Doped Silicon: Comparison: intrinsic vs
-- increases doping extrinsic conduction...
-- reason: imperfection sites -- extrinsic doping level:
lower the activation energy to 1021/m3 of a n-type donor
produce mobile electrons. impurity (such as P).
-- for T < 100 K: "freeze-out,
10 4 0.0052at%B
thermal energy insufficient to
electrical conductivity,

excite electrons.
10 3
-- for 150 K < T < 450 K: "extrinsic"
(Ohm-m) -1

10 2 doped
0.0013at%B
-- for T >> 450 K: "intrinsic"
10 1
doped

concentration (1021/m3)
10 0
Adapted from Fig.
pure undoped
18.17, Callister 7e.
conduction electron
(undoped) 3

freeze-out
(Fig. 18.17 from S.M.
10 -1

extrinsic

intrinsic
Sze, Semiconductor
2 Devices, Physics, and
10 -2 Technology, Bell
50 100 1000 1 Telephone
T(K) Laboratories, Inc.,
1985.)
Adapted from Fig. 19.15, Callister 5e. (Fig. 19.15 0
adapted from G.L. Pearson and J. Bardeen, Phys. Rev.
75, p. 865, 1949.) 0 200 400 600 T(K)
35
 Number of Charge Carriers
Intrinsic Conductivity
= n|e|me + p|e|me

for intrinsic semiconductor n = p

= n|e|(me + mn)

Ex: GaAs
106 ( m)1
n

e me mn
(1.6x1019 C)(0.85 0.45 m2/V s)

For GaAs n = 4.8 x 1024 m-3

For Si n = 1.3 x 1016 m-3
36
 Properties of Rectifying Junction

Fig. 18.22, Callister 7e. Fig. 18.23, Callister 7e.

37
 Transistor MOSFET
MOSFET (metal oxide semiconductor field effect
transistor)

Fig. 18.24,
Callister 7e.

38
 Integrated Circuit Devices

Fig. 18.26, Callister 6e.

Integrated circuits - state of the art ca. 50 nm line

width
1 Mbyte cache on board
> 100,000,000 components on chip
chip formed layer by layer
Al is the wire
39
 Ferroelectric Ceramics
Ferroelectric Ceramics are dipolar below Curie TC = 120C
cooled below Tc in strong electric field - make material
with strong dipole moment

Fig. 18.35, Callister 7e.

40
 Piezoelectric effect
Discovered in 1880 by Jacques and Pierre Curie during
studies into the effect of pressure on the generation of
electrical charge by crystals (such as quartz).
Piezoelectricity is defined as a change in electric
polarization with a change in applied stress (direct
piezoelectric effect).
The converse piezoelectric effect is the change of strain
or stress in a material due to an applied electric field.
Another interesting property of piezoelectric material is
they change their dimensions (contract or expand) when
an electric field is applied to them.
The converse piezoelectric effect describes the strain
that is developed in a piezoelectric material due to the
applied electric field:
 Piezoelectric Materials
Piezoelectricity application of pressure produces current

at compression applied voltage

rest induces induces
voltage expansion

Adapted from Fig. 18.36,

Callister 7e.
42
 Piezo Materials
Some examples of practical piezo
materials are barium titanate, lithium
niobate, polyvinyledene difluoride
(PVDF), and lead zirconate titanate
(PZT).
There are several different
formulations of the PZT compound,
each with different electromechanical
properties.
 What can piezoelectric ceramics do?
Mechanical compression or tension on a poled piezoelectric
ceramic element changes the dipole moment, creating a voltage.
Compression along the direction of polarization, or tension
perpendicular to the direction of polarization, generates voltage
of the same polarity as the poling voltage.

Generator and motor actions of a piezoelectric

 Piezoelectric ceramics- applications

The principle is adapted to piezoelectric

motors, sound or ultrasound generating
devices, and many other products.
Generator action is used in fuel-igniting
devices, solid state batteries, and other
products;
Motor action is adapted to piezoelectric
motors, sound or ultrasound generating
devices, and many other products.
 Summary
Electrical conductivity and resistivity are:
-- material parameters.
-- geometry independent.
Electrical resistance is:
-- a geometry and material dependent parameter.
Conductors, semiconductors, and insulators...
-- differ in accessibility of energy states for
conductance electrons.
For metals, conductivity is increased by
-- reducing deformation
-- reducing imperfections
-- decreasing temperature.
For pure semiconductors, conductivity is increased by
-- increasing temperature
-- doping (e.g., adding B to Si (p-type) or P to Si (n-type).
46