Elementary Tutorial

Fundamentals of Linear Vibrations

Prepared by Dr. An Tran

in collaboration with Professor P. R. Heyliger

Department of Civil Engineering

Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado
June 2003

Developed as part of the Research Experiences of Undergraduates Program on

Studies of Vibration and Sound , sponsored by National Science Foundation and
Army Research Office (Award # EEC-0241979). This support is gratefully acknowledged.
Fundamentals of Linear Vibrations

1. Single Degree-of-Freedom Systems

2. Two Degree-of-Freedom Systems
3. Multi-DOF Systems
4. Continuous Systems
Single Degree-of-Freedom Systems

1. A spring-mass system
General solution for any simple oscillator
General approach
Examples
2. Equivalent springs
Spring in series and in parallel
Examples
3. Energy Methods
Strain energy & kinetic energy
Work-energy statement
Conservation of energy and example
A spring-mass system

Governing equation of motion:

mx kx 0
General solution for any simple oscillator:
vo
x(t ) xo cos( nt ) sin( nt )
where: n
x o initial displacement; v o initial velocity x o ; t time (sec.)
k 2
n natural frequency (rads/sec. ) ; T period of vibration
m T
2
1 v
fn frequency (cycles/se c. or Hz) n ; C amplitude x 2o o
T 2 n
Any simple oscillator

General approach:
1. Select coordinate system
2. Apply small displacement
3. Draw FBD
4. Apply Newtons Laws:
d
F ( mx )
dt
d
M ( I)
dt
Simple oscillator Example 1

I mass moment of inertia M I +

I cg md 2 ml 2 K I
K
n ml K 0
2
ml 2
Simple oscillator Example 2

I I cg md 2 ml 2 M o I o +

n
k a

(ka)a ml 2
m l

Note limits: When

a
1, n
k ml ka 0

2 2

l m
a
As 0, n 0 (unstable)
l
Simple oscillator Example 3

I cg r 2 dm 2 0 x 2 Adx
l/2

M o I o +
Al
3 2
ml
2
ml
12 12
(kb)b
Io I cg md 2 3
2
ml 2 m ml 2 2
ml
m
12 2 3 kb 2 0
3k b 3
n
ml
Simple oscillator Example 4

ma 2
From table : I M z I +
2

TL JG T I
T
JG L
ma 2 GJ
Equivalent stiffness: K
JG
0
L 2 L
2GJ
n2
ma 2 L
Equivalent springs

Springs in series: Springs in parallel:

same force - flexibilities add same displacement - stiffnesses add
1 1
1 2 P P k1 k 2
k1 k 2 ( k1 k 2 ) keq
( f1 f 2 ) P f eq P

f eq f1 f 2 keq k1 k 2
Equivalent springs Example 1

mx K eq x 0

12EI 3EI
mx 3 3 x 0
L1 L2
Equivalent springs Example 2

Wl M o I o
2
ka +
n
2

ml 2
( ka )a Wl ml 2
n n ( a )
ml ( ka Wl ) 0
2 2
Consider:
ka2 > Wl n2 is positive - vibration is stable
ka2 = Wl statics - stays in stable equilibrium
ka2 < Wl unstable - collapses
Equivalent springs Example 3

We cannot define n M o I o +
since we have sin term
Wl sin ml 2
If < < 1, sin :
g ml mgl sin 0
2

0

l g
g sin 0

n l
l
Energy methods

Strain energy U: Kinetic energy T:

energy in spring = work done 1
T mr r
1 2 1 2
U k P
2 2 Increment of work done F dr

Conservation of energy: (mr) (rdt) d( 2 mr r) dT
1

work done = energy stored increment of kinetic energy T

Work-Energy principles

Work done = Change in kinetic energy

r2 T2

r1
F dr T
1
dT T2 T1

Conservation of energy for conservative systems

E = total energy = T + U = constant

Energy methods Example
Work-energy principles have many
uses, but one of the most useful is
to derive the equations of motion.

Conservation of energy: E = const.

d
1 (E)0
U kx 2 dt
2
kxx mxx 0
1 2
T mx
2 mx kx 0
1 2 1 2
E U T kx mx Same as vector mechanics
2 2
Two Degree-of-Freedom Systems

1. Model problem
Matrix form of governing equation
Special case: Undamped free vibrations
Examples
2. Transformation of coordinates
Inertially & elastically coupled/uncoupled
General approach: Modal equations
Example
3. Response to harmonic forces
Model equation
Special case: Undamped system
Two-DOF model problem

Matrix form of governing equation:

m1 0 x1 (c1 c2 ) c2 x1 (k1 k2 ) k2 x1 P1
0 m x c
c2 x2 k2
2 2 2 k2 x2 P2
where:
[M] = mass matrix; [C] = damping matrix;
[K] = stiffness matrix; {P} = force vector
Note: Matrices have positive diagonals and are symmetric.
Undamped free vibrations
Zero damping matrix [C] and force vector {P}
Assumed general solutions:
x1 A1
cos(t )
x2 A2
Characteristic equation:
(k1 k2 m1 2 ) k2 A1 0
2
k2 (k2 m2 ) A2 0
Characteristic polynomial (for det[ ]=0):
k1 k 2 k 2 2 k1k 2

4
0
m1 m2 m1m2
Eigenvalues (characteristic values):
2

1
2

1 k k2 k2 k1 k 2 k 2 4k1k 2
1 12 1
2 2 2 m1 m2 m1 m2 m1m2

Undamped free vibrations
Special case when k1=k2=k and m1=m2=m
Eigenvalues and frequencies: k
1 0.618 fundamental frequency
12 0.3819 k m
1 2 2
2
1 2.618 m T fundamental period

Two mode shapes (relative participation of each mass in the motion):

A2 2k m 2 1.618 A2 k 0.618
st
1 mode shape 2nd mode shape
A1 k 1 A1 k m 2 1

The two eigenvectors are orthogonal:

A1(1) 1 A1( 2) 1
Eigenvector (1) = (1) Eigenvector (2) = ( 2 )
2
A 1.618 2
A 0.618
Undamped free vibrations (UFV)

Single-DOF: x(t ) C cos( nt )

For two-DOF:
x1 (t ) A1(1) A1( 2)
x C1 (1) cos(1t 1 ) C2 ( 2) cos( 2t 2 )
x2 (t ) A2 A2
For any set of initial conditions:

We know {A}(1) and {A}(2), 1 and 2

Must find C1, C2, 1, and 2 Need 4 I.C.s
UFV Example 1
1.0
Given: x 0 and xo
1.618
No phase angle since initial velocity is 0:
x1 1.0 1.0
x C1 cos(1t ) C2 cos( 2t )
x2 1.618 0.618
From the initial displacement: C1 ; C2 0;
xo
1.0 1.0 1.0 2
C1 C 2 T1
1.618 1.618 0.618 1
UFV Example 2
1
Now both modes are involved: x 0 and xo
2
From the given initial displacement:
1 1 1 1 1 C1
xo C1 C2 C

2 1.618 0.618 1 .618 0.618 2
Solve for C1 and C2:
C1 1 0.618 1 1 1.171
1.618 1 2
2
C 0.618 1. 618 0.171
Hence, 1 1
x (1.171) cos(1t ) (0.171) cos( 2t )
1.618 0.618
or x1 (t ) 1.171 (1) cos(1t ) 0.171 (1) cos( 2t )
x2 (t ) 1.171 (1.618) cos(1t ) 0.171 (0.618) cos( 2t )

Note: More contribution from mode 1

Transformation of coordinates
UFV model problem:
inertially uncoupled

m1 0 x1 (k1 k2 ) k2 x1 0
0 m x k
k2 x2 0
2 2 2

elastically coupled
Introduce a new pair of coordinates that represents spring stretch:
z1(t) = x1(t) = stretch of spring 1
z2(t) = x2(t) - x1(t) = stretch of spring 2
or x1(t) = z1(t) x2(t) = z1(t) + z2(t)
Substituting maintains symmetry:
(m1 m2 ) m2 z1 k1 0 z1 0
m
2 m2 z2 0 k2 z2 0
inertially coupled elastically uncoupled
Transformation of coordinates
We have found that we can select coordinates so that:
1) Inertially coupled, elastically uncoupled, or
2) Inertially uncoupled, elastically coupled.
Big question: Can we select coordinates so that both are uncoupled?

Notes in natural coordinates:

Eigenvecto rs (modal vectors) :
A1(1) 1 A1( 2) 1
u1 (1) u2 ( 2)
2
A 1.618 2
A 0.618

The eigenvectors are orthogonal w.r.t [M]: u1T M u2 0

u2 T M u1 0
The modal vectors are orthogonal w.r.t [K]: u1T K u2 0
u2 T K u1 0
Algebraic eigenvalue problem: K u1 1M u1 K u2 2 M u2
Transformation of coordinates
General approach for solution
Governing equation: M x K x 0
Let x u1 q1 (t ) u2 q2 (t ) (**)
x1 (t ) u11 u12
or
1 q (t ) q2 (t )
x2 (t ) u21 u22
We were calling A - Change to u to match Meirovitch
Substitution:

(*) M u1 q1 (t ) u2 q2 (t ) K u1 q1 (t ) u2 q2 (t ) 0
Modal equations:
u1T (*) q1 (t ) 12 q1 (t ) 0
Known solutions

u2 T (*) q2 (t ) 22 q2 (t ) 0
Solve for these using initial conditions then substitute into (**).
Transformation - Example
xo
1
xo
0
Model problem with: and
2 0
1) Solve eigenvalue problem:
u 1 u12 1
1 0.618; 11 and 1.618;
u22 0.618
2
21
u 1.618
2) Transformation:
q1 (t ) 12 q1 (t ) 0
x u1 q1 (t ) u2 q2 (t ) and

2
q (t ) 2 q2 (t ) 0
2

1 1 1
q1 (0) q2 (0)

2 1. 618 0.618
q1 (0) 1.171 q1 (t ) q1 (0) cos(1t )
and
2
q ( 0) 0. 171 q2 (t ) q2 (0) cos( 2t )

1 1
So x 1.171 cos(1t ) (0.171 ) cos( 2t )
1.618 0.618
As we had before.
More general procedure: Modal analysis do a bit later.
Response to harmonic forces
F1 i t
Model equation: M x C x K x F (t ) e
F2
[M], [C], and [K] are full but symmetric. {F}
not function of time
Assume: X 1 (i ) i t
x X (i ) e
X 2 (i )
Substituting gives:

2
M i C K X (i ) F

Z (i ) 2x2 impedance matrix
Z (i )1 Z (i ) X (i ) Z (i )1 F
Hence:
All zij are function of (i ) :
X1 z22 z12 F1
X 1
2 F zij 2 mij i cij kij i, j 1, 2
z z
2 11 22 12 12
X z z z11 2
Special case: Undamped system
Zero damping matrix [C]
Entries of impedance matrix [Z]:
z11 ( ) k11 m1 2 ; z22 ( ) k22 m2 2 ; z12 ( ) k12
Substituting for X1 and X2:
(k 22 m2 2 ) F1 k12 F2 k12 F1 (k11 m1 2 ) F2
X1 ; X2
(k11 m1 2 )( k22 m2 2 ) k122 (k11 m1 2 )( k22 m2 2 ) k122
For our model problem (k1=k2=k and m1=m2=m), let F2 =0:
(k m 2 ) F1 k F1
X1 2 2 ; X2
m ( 12 ) ( 2 22 ) m 2 ( 2 12 ) ( 2 22 )

Notes:
1) Denominator originally (-)(-) = (+).
As it passes through 1, changes sign.
2) The plots give both amplitude
and phase angle (either 0o or 180o)
Multi-DOF Systems

1. Model Equation
Notes on matrices
Undamped free vibration: the eigenvalue problem
Normalization of modal matrix [U]

2. General solution procedure

Initial conditions
Applied harmonic force
Multi-DOF model equation
Multi-DOF systems are so similar to two-DOF.

Model equation: M x Cx K x Q
We derive using: 1) Vector mechanics (Newton or D Alembert)
2) Hamilton's principles
3) Lagrange's equations
Notes on matrices:

They are square and symmetric.

Kinetic energy : T 1
2
xT M x
Strain energy in spring : U 12 x K x
T

[M] is positive definite (since T is always positive)

[K] is positive semi-definite:
all positive eigenvalues, except for some potentially 0-eigenvalues which
occur during a rigid-body motion.
If restrained/tied down positive-definite. All positive.
UFV: the eigenvalue problem

Equation of motion:

M q K q 0 in terms of the generalized D.O.F. qi

Substitution of
q u f (t ) f (t ) A1ei t A2e i t
leads to
K u 2 M u Matrix eigenvalue problem

For more than 2x2, we usually solve using computational techniques.

Total motion for any problem is a linear combination of the natural

modes contained in {u} (i.e. the eigenvectors).
Normalization of modal matrix [U]
ui M u j ui M u j C ij
T
We know that: where :
ij Kronecker delta
So far, we pick our 1 Let the 1st 1 if i j

eigenvectors to look like: uk entry be 1 0 if i j

1
Instead, let us try to pick uk new uk
so that:

uk Tnew M uk new 2 uk T M uk 1 Do this a row at a time to form [U].

Then: U T M U I and U T K U
12 0 . 0
This is a common technique
0 22
for us to use after we have solved where :
. .
. . . .
the eigenvalue problem.
0 . . n2
General solution procedure

Consider the cases of:

1. Initial excitation qo and qo

2. Harmonic applied force
3. Arbitrary applied force

For all 3 problems:

1. Form [K]{u} = 2 [M]{u} (nxn system)

Solve for all 2 and {u} [U].
2. Normalize the eigenvectors w.r.t. mass matrix (optional).
Initial conditions
General solution for any D.O.F.:

q(t ) u1C1 cos(1t 1 ) u2 C2 cos(2t 2 ) un Cn cos(nt n )

2n constants that we need to determine by 2n conditions on qo i and qo i

Alternative: modal analysis q U

Displacement vectors: q(t ) u11 (t ) u2 2 (t ) un n (t )
UFV model equation: M q K q 0
U T M U U T K U 0
0
n modal equations: 1 121 0

2 22 2 0
Need initial conditions on ,
not q.
n n n 0
2
Initial conditions - Modal analysis

Using displacement vectors: q U

U T M q U T M U
or U T M q
o U M qo
T
As a result, initial conditions:

o
U T
M qo
Since the solution of
2 0 is: C cos( t ) or

(t ) o cos( t ) o sin( t )

hence we can easily solve for ( )
1 (t ) (o )1 cos(1t ) o 1 sin( 1t )
1

And then solve
( )
q U n (t ) (o ) n cos( nt ) o n sin( nt )
n
Applied harmonic force
Driving force {Q} = {Qo}cos(t)
Equation of motion:
M q K q Q
Substitution of
q U and
U known Q Qo cos( t )
unknown driving frequency
leads to
U T M U U T K U U T Qo cos( t ) N
Hence, u1 Qo
1 2
T
cos( t ) then
1
2

u 2 Qo
T q U
2 2 cos( t )
2 2

etc.
Continuous Systems

1. The axial bar

Displacement field
Energy approach
Equation of motion
2. Examples
General solution - Free vibration
Initial conditions
Applied force
Motion of the base
3. Ritz method Free vibration
Approximate solution
One-term Ritz approximation
Two-term Ritz approximation
The axial bar

Main objectives:
1. Use Hamiltons Principle to derive the equations of motion.
2. Use HP to construct variational methods of solution.

A = cross-sectional area = uniform

E = modulus of elasticity (MOE)
u = axial displacement
= mass per volume

Displacement field: u(x, y, z) = u(x, t)

v(x, y, z) = 0
w(x, y, z) = 0
Energy approach

For the axial bar:

1 u u E u
2

Uo strain energy density 12 12 (E x ) x E

2 x x 2 x
V potential energy strain energy U U o dV
V

T kinetic energy mu
1
2
2 1
2 (Adx)u 2

Hamiltons principle:
t2
0 (T V ) dt
t1

t2 L u
0 Adx u u A E u dx dt
t1

0
x x
L u u L
0 Adx u u u dx AE u dt A u u tt12 dx
t2 L
AE
t x x x 0
t1 0 0

t2 L u u L
0 A u AE u dx AE u dt
t1

0 t x x x 0
Axial bar - Equation of motion

Hamiltons principle leads to: A u AE u 0
t x x

2u 2 u
2
E F L2
If area A = constant where : 2
M
t 2 x 2 L3
Since x and t are independent, must have both sides equal to a constant.

Separation of variables: u ( x, t ) X ( x) T (t )

2 d 2
X dx 2

d 2T dt 2
contant - p 2
X T
T p 2 T 0 X p X 0
2

T A cos( pt ) B sin( pt ) X C cos p x D sin p x

Hence
u ( x, t ) A cos( p t ) B sin( p t ) C cos p x D sin p x
i 1
i i i i i i i i
Fixed-free bar General solution
E
Free vibration: = wave speed

EBC: u (0) 0
u u
NBC: AE xL 0 xL 0
x x
General solution:
u ( x, t ) A cos( p t ) B sin( p t ) C
i 1
i i i i i cos pi x Di sin pi x

EBC u (0, t ) C A cos( p t ) B sin( p t ) 0
i 1
i i i i i Ci 0

u
cos pi L Ai cos( pi t ) Bi sin( pi t ) 0
Di pi
NBC
x
xL
i 1
p L pi L 3 5
Either Di 0 (trivial solution) or cos i 0 or or
2 2 2
i
pi (i 1, 3, 5, )
For any time dependent problem: 2L

i x i t i t
u ( x, t ) sin



i
A cos



Bi sin



i 1, 3, 5, 2 L 2 L 2 L
Fixed-free bar Free vibration

2u 2 u
2
For free vibration:
t 2
x 2
General solution: u( x, t ) A( x) cos( n t )

i E
Hence n are the frequencies (eigenvalues)
2L
(i 1, 3, 5, )
i x are the eigenfunctions
sin
2 L
Fixed-free bar Initial conditions
Give entire bar an initial stretch.
Release and compute u(x, t).
Initial conditions:
L L u
u ( x, 0) o x and t 0 0
L t
u
i i x
Initial velocity: t 0 Bi sin 0 Bi 0
t i 1, 3, 2 L 2L

Lo L
i x
Initial displacement: x Ai sin
L i 1, 3, 2L
Lo L i x
i x i x L

L L
0

L
x sin
2L
dx
i 1, 3,
0 Ai sin sin
2L 2L
dx Ai
2
( i 1)
2( Lo L) L i x 8( Lo L)
or Ai
L2
0
x sin
2L
dx
i
2 2
( 1) 2 (i 1, 3, )

( i 1)
8( Lo L)
1 i x i t
Hence u ( x, t )
2

i 1, 3,
( 1) 2
i2
sin
2L
cos
2L

Fixed-free bar Applied force
u (0, t ) 0
Now, B.Cs:
u
A E x L Fo sin( t )
x
2u 2 u
2

From
t 2
x 2
we assume: u( x, t ) X ( x) sin( n t )
x x
Substituting: u ( x, t ) A1 cos A2 sin sin t

B.C. at x = 0: u (0, t ) 0 A1 0

u L
B.C. at x = L: AE xL AE A 2 cos sin( t ) Fo sin( t )
x L
Fo L
or A2 sec
AE

Fo L x
Hence u ( x, t ) sec sin sin t
AE
Fixed-free bar Motion of the base
2u 2 u
2
From
t 2 x 2
Using our approach from before:

x x
u ( x, t ) A1 cos A2 sin sin t

B.C. at x = 0: u (0, t ) A1 sin( t ) U o sin( t ) A1 U o

u
B.C. at x = L: AE xL 0
x
u U L A2 L L
o sin cos sin t 0 A 2 U o tan
x
xL

x L x
Hence u ( x, t ) U o cos tan sin sin t

L 3 3
Resonance at: , , or , , etc.
2 2 2L 2L
Ritz method Free vibration

Start with Hamiltons principle after I.B.P. in time:

L u
0 A u u AE u dx dt
t2
0
t x x
t1

Seek an approximate solution to u(x, t):

In time: harmonic function cos(t) ( = n)
In space: X(x) = a11(x)
where: a1 = constant to be determined
1(x) = known function of position
1(x) must satisfy the following:
1. Satisfy the homogeneous form of the EBC.
u(0) = 0 in this case.
2. Be sufficiently differentiable as required by HP.
One-term Ritz approximation 1
Pick : 1 ( x) x u ( x, t ) a1 1 ( x) cos( t ) a1 x cos( t )
Also approximate : u 1 ( x) cos( t ) x cos( t )

Substituting:
t2 L

0 a1 2 A ( x)( x) AE (1)(1) dx cos 2 ( t ) dt
t1
0
2 A x 2 dx a1 A E dx a1
0
L

0
L

in matrix form: 2 M a K a
2 AL
3
3 E 3
AE L 2 2 2 2
3 L L 1RITZ x

Hence 3
RITZ 1.732 x
1EXACT sin
L L 2 L

EXACT 1.571
2L L
Ritz estimate is higher than the exact
Only get one frequency
If we pick a different basis/trial/approximation function 1,
we would get a different result.
One-term Ritz approximation 2
x d1 x
What if we pick : 1 ( x) sin cos
2L dx 2 L 2 L
u ( x, t ) a1 1 ( x) cos( t ) a1 sin x 2 L cos( t )
Also approximate : u 1 ( x) cos( t ) sin x 2 L cos( t )
t2 L u
Substituting: 0 A u u AE u dx dt
t x x
t1 0

L
2

x 2 x
t2
0 0 a1 A sin
2 2
AE cos dx cos 2 ( t ) dt
t1
2L 2L 2 L

E
Hence RITZ EXACT
2L 2L

Both mode shape and natural frequency are exact.

But all other functions we pick will never give us a
frequency lower than the exact.
Two-term Ritz approximation
dX
Let : X ( x) a1 x a2 x 2 a1 2a2 x
dx

A
t2 L
If approximate u 1 x : 0
2
(a1 x a2 x 2 ) x AE (a1 2a2 x)(1) dx dt
t1
0

A
t2 L
If approximate u x 2 : 0 2
(a1 x a2 x 2 ) x 2 AE (a1 2a2 x)(2 x) dx dt
t1
0

In matrix form: M 11 M 12 a1 E K11 K12 a1

2

M 21 M 22 a2 K 21 K 22 a2
where:
L L3
M 11 0 ( x)( x) dx L
11 0 (1)(1)dx L
K
3

L L4
M 12 M 21 0 ( x )( x) dx
L
0 (2 x)(1)dx L
2 2
12
K K 21
4
K L (2 x)( 2 x)dx 4 L
3
L5
0
L
M 22 0 ( x )( x )dx
2 2


22
3
5
Two-term Ritz approximation (cont.)
E
Substitution of: 2 and 2

( 2 L L3 3) ( 2 L2 L4 4) a1 0
leads to 2 2
( L L 4) ( 4 L 3 L 5) a2 0
4 2 3 5

Solving characteristic polynomial (for det[ ]=0) yields 2 frequencies:

(1 ) RITZ 1.5767 L and (2 ) RITZ 5.67 L

(1 ) EXACT 1.5708 L and ( 2 ) EXACT 4.7123 L
Let a1 = 1:

Mode 1: Mode shape 1 :

2 L (0.1713 a1 0.3785 L a2 ) 0 a2 0.4526 L X 1 ( x) x 0.4526 x 2 L
Mode 2: Mode shape 2 :
2 L2 ( 7.043 a1 5.10 L a2 ) 0 a2 1.38 L X 2 ( x) x 1.38 x 2 L