BITZERS THEORY OF SITUATION AND

ITS RELEVANCE IN CRISIS

MANAGEMENT
BY
JEMIMAH OFORI (AR/MCS/17/0014)
KWABENA ANTWI-KONADU (AR/MCS/17/0015)
DANIEL OPOKU (AR/MCS/17/0024)
GODWIN ASANTE FORKUO (AR/MCS/17/0027)
MARIAN SIKA BIRITWUM (AR/MCS/17/0010)
 OUTLINE
INTRODUCTION
CRISIS DEFINED
CRISIS MANAGEMENT DEFINED
IMPORTANCE OF CRISIS MANAGEMENT
BITZERS THEORY OF SITUATION AND ITS RELEVANCE IN CRISIS MANAGEMENT
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS AND RELEVANCE
CONCLUSION

2
 INTRODUCTION
THE WORD CRISIS COMES FROM THE GREEK WORD KRISIS, MEANING DECISION. WE
HAVE ALL BEEN THERE. THOSE MOMENTS WHEN WE ARE PRESSED IN AN INSTANT TO
DECIDE A COURSE OF ACTION. MOVE TO THE LEFT, OR MOVE TO THE RIGHT. FIGHT OR
EE. OFFER AN EXPLANATION, OR DUMMY UP TIGHT. (STEVEN, 2010)

MILLAR (2004) CITED IN WOLF (2013) VIEWED CRISIS AS AN EVENT THAT SUDDENLY
OCCURS, DEMANDS QUICK REACTION, INTERFERES WITH ORGANIZATIONAL
PERFORMANCE, CREATES UNCERTAINTY AND STRESS, THREATENS THE REPUTATION,
ASSETS OF THE ORGANIZATION, ESCALATES IN INTENSITY, CAUSES OUTSIDERS TO
SCRUTINIZE THE ORGANIZATION, AND PERMANENTLY ALTERS THE ORGANIZATION.

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COOMBS (2007), POSITS THAT A CRISIS CAN CREATE THREE RELATED THREATS: (1) PUBLIC
SAFETY, (2) FINANCIAL LOSS, AND (3) REPUTATION LOSS
 CRISIS MANAGEMENT DEFINED
COOMBS (2007), STATED THAT CRISIS MANAGEMENT IS A PROCESS
DESIGNED TO PREVENT OR LESSEN THE DAMAGE A CRISIS CAN INFLICT ON
AN ORGANIZATION AND ITS STAKEHOLDERS. COOMBS FURTHER
CONSIDERS CRISIS MANAGEMENT AS A CRITICAL FUNCTION FOR AN
ORGANIZATION, BECAUSE FAILURE IN MANAGING A CRISIS CAN RESULT
IN SERIOUS HARM TO THE STAKEHOLDERS, LOSSES FOR AN
ORGANIZATION, OR END ITS VERY EXISTENCE.

SUBSEQUENTLY, A LOT OF SEVERAL AUTHORITIES HAVE SUGGESTED THE

NEED TO MANAGE CRISIS IN AN ORGANIZATION. ONE OF SUCH
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THEORISTS IS LLOYD F. BITZER.
 BITZERS THEORY OF SITUATION AND ITS
RELEVANCE IN CRISIS MANAGEMENT
LLOYD F. BITZER WAS A PROFESSOR OF SPEECH, AT THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN,
MADISON, WHOSE WRITING AMONG OTHER THINGS LOOK AT SPEECHES AND RHETORICS.

THEORIZING THE RHETORICAL SITUATION, ACCORDING TO HIM, THE PRESENCE OF

RHETORICAL DISCOURSE OBVIOUSLY INDICATES THE PRESENCE OF RHETORICAL
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SITUATION.
 THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS AND RELEVANCE
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, INAUGURAL
SPEECHES OF PRESIDENTS, AND STATE OF THE
NATION ADDRESS EACH IS A CLEAR INSTANCE AND
EACH INDICATE THE PRESENCE OF SITUATION.

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 TO HIM, WHILE THE EXISTENCE OF A RHETORICAL ADDRESS IS A
RELIABLE SIGN OF THE EXISTENCE OF SITUATION, IT DOES NOT
FOLLOW THAT A SITUATION EXISTS ONLY WHEN THE DISCOURSE
EXISTS. SITUATIONS ARE NOT ALWAYS ACCOMPANIED BY
DISCOURSE. NOR SHALL WE ASSUME THAT A RHETORICAL ADDRESS
GIVES EXISTENCE TO SITUATION. ON THE CONTRARY, IT IS THE
SITUATION WHICH CALLS THE DISCOURSE INTO EXISTENCE.

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 IN EXAMINING THE RELEVANCE OF BITZERS THEORY ON
RHETORICAL SITUATION IN CRISIS MANAGEMENT, IT MAY BE
IMPORTANT TO FIRST LOOK AT THE ASSUMPTIONS THE THEORY
IS BUILT UPON.

THAT RHETORICAL SITUATION MAY BE DEFINED AS A COMPLEX

OF PERSONS, EVENTS, OBJECTS AND RELATIONS PRESENTING
ON ACTUAL OR POTENTIAL EXIGENCIES WHICH CAN BE
COMPLETELY OR PARTIALLY REMOVED IF DISCOURSE,
INTRODUCE INTO THE SITUATION, CAN SO CONSTRAIN HUMAN
DECISION OR ACTION AS TO BRING ABOUT SIGNIFICANT
MODIFICATION OF THE EXIGENCE. 8
 TO HIM, PRIOR TO THE CREATION AND PRESENTATION OF DISCOURSE,
THERE ARE THREE CONSTITUENT OF RHETORICAL SITUATION, THE FIRST IS
THE EXIGENCE, THE SECOND IS AUDIENCE AND THE CONSTRAINTS WHICH
INFLUENCES THE RHETOR AND CAN BE BROUGHT TO BEAR UPON THE
AUDIENCE.

AN EXIGENCE IS RHETORICAL WHEN IT IS CAPABLE OF POSITIVE

MODIFICATION AND WHEN POSITIVE MODIFICATION REQUIRES DISCOURSE
OR CAN BE ASSISTED BY DISCOURSE. FOR EXAMPLE, OPEN DEFECATION-
STOPPING IT STRONGLY INVITES THE ASSISTANCES OF DISCOURSE
CREATING PUBLIC AWARENESS THROUGH THE MEDIA, INDIGNATION AND
ACTION OF RIGHT KIND. 9
 THE SECOND CONSTITUENT-AUDIENCE MUST BE PRESENT IN ALL
RHETORICAL SITUATIONS. THE RHETORICAL AUDIENCE MUST BE
CAPABLE OF SERVING AS MEDIATOR OF CHANGE WHICH THE
DISCOURSE FUNCTIONS TO PRODUCE. FOR EXAMPLE: ADVISING
SEXUALLY ACTIVE TEENAGERS ON THE EFFECT OF TEENAGE
PREGNANCY

BESIDES EXIGENCE AND AUDIENCE, EVERY RHETORICAL SITUATION

CONTAINS A SET OF CONSTRAINTS MADE UP OF PERSONS, EVENTS,
OBJECTS AND RELATIONS WHICH ARE PART OF THE SITUATION BECAUSE
THEY HAVE THE POWER TO CONSTRAIN DECISION AND ACTION NEEDED TO
MODIFY THE EXIGENCE. E.G: ATTITUDE, VALUE, LAWS, ETC. 10
 BITZERS THEORY ON RHETORICAL SITUATION IS SO RELEVANT IN
HANDLING CRISIS MANAGEMENT. THE SIGNIFICANCE COULD BE EXPLAINED
AS FOLLOWS:

RHETORICAL DISCOURSE IS CALLED INTO EXISTENCE BY SITUATION: THE

CLEAREST INSTANCE OF RHETORICAL SPEAKING AND WRITING ARE
STRONGLY INVITED-OFTEN REQUIRED.

E.G.: THE LYNCHING OF MAJOR MAHAMA AND THE NATIONAL UPROAR ON

THE INCIDENCE OF MOB ACTION IN GHANA IS A CLASSICAL EXAMPLE OF
MANAGING THE CRISIS OF MOB ACTION.
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 ALTHOUGH RHETORICAL SITUATION INVITES RESPONSE, IT
OBVIOUSLY DOES NOT INVITE JUST ANY RESPONSE. THE
RESPONSE MUST BE FITTING RESPONSES, A RESPONSE THAT FITS
THE SITUATION. FOR EXAMPLE, CANDIDATE AKUFFO ADDO AND
HIS RESPONSE TO POWER, ENERGY AND ECONOMIC CRISIS.

AGAIN, IF IT MAKES SENSE TO SAY THAT SITUATION INVITES A

FITTING RESPONSE, THEN THE SITUATION MUST SOMEHOW
PRESCRIBE THE RESPONSE WHICH FITS.

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 LARGELY, THE INAUGURATION OF A PRESIDENT OF GHANA
DEMANDS AN ADDRESS WHICH SPEAKS TO THE
UNCOMFORTABLE SOCIAL, POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, HEALTH,
EDUCATION, UNITY, PEACE DESPONDENCY AND OTHER CRISIS
AND HOW THEY WILL BE MANAGEMENT. E.G.: NANA AKUFFO
ADDOS INAUGURAL SPEECH.

RELATED TO THIS, IS THE ISSUE OF THE EXIGENCE AND COMPLEX

OF PERSONS, OBJECTS, EVENTS AND RELATIONS WHICH
GENERATE RHETORICAL DISCOURSE LOCATED IN REALITY, ARE
OBJECTIVELY AND PUBLICLY OBSERVABLE HISTORICAL FACTS. 13
 THE CRISIS MANAGEMENT OF THE EBOLA VIRUS
OUTBREAK AND OTHER EPIDEMICS WHICH ARE LOCATED
IN REALITY ARE SITUATION IN THEIR CONTEXT FOR
CRISIS MANAGEMENT TO BE EFFECTIVE. EG: GHS AND
WHO APPROACHES

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 BITZER SAYS THAT EACH SITUATION DEMANDS A SPECIFIC OR
UNIQUE APPROACH OR STRATEGY TO MANAGE THE CRISIS. IT IS
NOT EVERY STRATEGY THAT IS FIT IN ALL SITUATIONS.

A SITUATIONS STRUCTURE IS SAID TO BE SIMPLE WHEN THERE

ARE RELATIVELY FEW ELEMENTS WHICH MUST BE MADE TO
INTERACT. E.G.: TO DEAL WITH THE FORMER SPORTS MINISTERS
FINANCIAL CRISIS BY FORMER PRESIDENT J.A. KUFFOUR WAS
VERY SIMPLE CASE AS THE MINISTER WAS PREVAILED UPON TO
RESIGN OR BE SACKED.
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 ON THE OTHER HAND, THE STRUCTURE OF THE SITUATION IS
COMPLEX WHEN MANY ELEMENTS ARE PRESENT TO MAKE IT
INTERACTIVE

YOU MAY BE SPEAKING TO IMMEDIATE, REMOTE AND

COMPOSITE AUDIENCE AT THE SAME TIME, HENCE, DIFFICULT TO
HANDLE RHETORICAL SITUATION ESPECIALLY IN CRISIS
COMMUNICATION MANAGEMENT. FOR EXAMPLE, USING THE
CHURCH PLATFORM TO MAKE POLITICAL STATEMENTS.

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 FINALLY, RHETORICAL SITUATION COME INTO EXISTENCE, THEN
EITHER MATURE OR DECAY OR MATURE AND PERSIST-
CONCEIVABLE SOME PERSIST INDEFINITELY.

THEREFORE, IT IS IMPORTANT TO CRITICALLY NOTE THE NATURE

OF THE CRISIS WHEN MANAGING BECAUSE DUE TO EITHER THE
NATURE OF THINGS OR CONVENTION, OR BOTH SOME
SITUATION RECURS. E.G. MANAGING POLITICAL CORRUPTION
OR VIGILANTISM IS COMPLEX AS THE ISSUES KEEP RE-
OCCURRING.
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 CONCLUSION

WE CAN SAY FROM THE DISCUSSION SO FAR THAT

BITZERS THEORY IS SO SIGNIFICANT IN PROVIDING
VERY CRITICAL INSIGHT INTO CRISIS MANAGEMENT.

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 REFERENCE
BITZER, L. F. (1968). THE RHETORICAL SITUATION. PHILOSOPHY AND RHETORIC, 1(1), 1-14.
COOMBS, W. T. (2007A). PROTECTING ORGANIZATION REPUTATIONS DURING A CRISIS: THE
DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATION OF SITUATIONAL CRISIS COMMUNICATION THEORY.
CORPORATE REPUTATION REVIEW, 10(3), 163-176.
COOMBS, W. T. (2010). PARAMETERS FOR CRISIS COMMUNICATION. THE HANDBOOK OF CRISIS
COMMUNICATION, 17-53.
DE WOLF D. & MEJRI, M. (2013). CRISIS COMMUNICATION FAILURES: THE BP CASE STUDY.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCES IN MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS, 2 (2), 48-56.
SEEGER, M. W., ULMER, R.& SELLNOW, T. (2005). POST-CRISIS DISCOURSE AND ORGANIZATIONAL
CHANGE, FAILURE AND RENEWAL. JOURNAL OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE MANAGEMENT,
18(1), 78-95
VAN HOOK, S. R. (2010). CRISIS MANAGEMENT MOMENTS: MAKING THE MOST OF A BAD SITUATION.
RETRIEVED FROM HTTP://ABOUTPUBLICRELATIONS.NET/AA021701A.HTM 19
THANK YOU
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