Special Topics:

The Bioheat Equation

Thermoelectric Power Generation
Micro- and Nanoscale Conduction

Chapter Three
Sections 3.7 through 3.9
Bioheat Equation

Nature and Rationale of the Bioheat Equation

Heat transfer within the human body is affected by two volumetric thermal
energy generation phenomena: metabolic heat generation and exchange between
tissue and flowing blood (or perfusion). Therefore, the one-dimensional steady-state
heat equation describing the local temperature T in, for example, living tissue may
be written in terms of the bioheat equation
metabolic volumetric generation perfusion

d 2T q&m + q&P (3.111)

+ =0
dx 2 k

where perfusion within a small volume of tissue is described in terms of

the blood temperature in small arteries entering the volume, Ta

q&P = wrb cb ( Ta - T ) (3.112)

blood density and specific heat

Blood flow rate (m3/s) per unit tissue volume (m3)

An assumption made in writing Eq. (3.112) is that the flowing blood exits
at the local tissue temperature T.
Bioheat equation (cont.)

Defining an excess temperature as

q&m
q T - Ta -
wrb cb

and the parameter

m%2 wrb cb / k

Equation (3.111) becomes

d 2q
- %
m 2
q =0 (3.114)
dx 2

which is identical in form to the equation for fins of uniform cross section

d 2q
- m 2
q =0 (3.69)
dx 2

Hence the results of Section 3.6.2 and Table 3.4 may be applied to solve
the bioheat equation.
Problem: Metabolic heating

Problem 3.166: Assessment of metabolic heating required to maintain

comfortable exposed skin temperature under chilly conditions.

Schematic:

Assumptions: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional heat transfer, (3) Metabolic heat
generation rate, perfusion rate, arterial temperature, blood properties, and thermal conductivities
are all uniform, (4) No generation in skin/fat layer, (5) Solar irradiation of skin is negligible.

Analysis: For a skin surface temperature of Ts = 33C, the heat loss from the skin to the environment is

q = hA (Ts - T) + es A(Ts4 - Tsur

4
)
= 2 W/m 2
K 1.8 m 2 (33 - 15)C + 0.95 5.67 10-8 W/m 2 (
K 4 1.8 m 2 3064 - 2884 K 4 )
= 248 W
Problem: Metabolic heating (cont.)

Since there is no generation in the skin/fat layer, the interface temperature between the
skin/fat layer and the muscle layer is found from a conduction analysis for the skin/fat

qLsf 248 W 0.003 m

Ti = Ts + = 33C + 2
= 34.4C
ksf A 0.3 W/m K 1.8 m

Heat transfer in the muscle is governed by Eq. 3.114. From Example 3.12, the rate at which heat leaves
the muscle and enters the skin/fat layer is determined by utilizing a solution of the fin equation as

dT q cosh mL
% m - qc
q x = L = - km A = -km Am% i
m dx x = Lm %m
sinh mL

This heat rate must equal the rate at which heat is transferred across the skin/fat layer, q = 248 W.
Inserting the definitions of qi Ti - Ta - q&m / (wrb cb ) and qc Tc - Ta - q&m / (wrb cb ) we can solve
for the required metabolic heat rate:

q
% m + (Ti - Ta )coshmL
sinhmL %m + (Tc - Ta )
km Am%
q&m = wrb cb
coshmL%m + 1
Problem: Metabolic heating (cont.)

where

1/2
0.0005 s-1 1000 kg/m3 3600 J/kg
m%= wrb cb / km = K = 60 m-1
K 0.5 W/m

and with

% m ) = sinh(60 m-1 0.03 m) = 2.94

sinh(mL

% m ) = cosh(60 m-1 0.03 m) = 3.11

cosh(mL

q&m = 0.0005 s -1 1000 kg/m 3 3600 J/kg

K
248 W
0.5 W/m 2 -1
2.94 + (34.4 - 37)C 3.11
K 1.8 m 60 m = 2341 W/m
3
<
3.11 + 1

COMMENTS: Shivering can increase the metabolic heat rate by six times the resting rate. The value found
here is about 3 times the resting rate given in Example 3.12.
Thermoelectric Power Generation

Nature and Rationale of Thermoelectric Power

Generation
For many materials, when a temperature gradient is established, a corresponding
voltage gradient is induced. For a constant property material

( E1 - E2 ) = S ( T1 - T2 ) (3.115)

voltage difference temperature difference

Seebeck coefficient [V/K]

The Seebeck coefficient is small in metals, but can be relatively large in

semiconductors. The Seebeck coefficient can be made positive or negative
by doping a semiconducting material. When p- and n-type semiconductors
are arranged in an electric circuit including an external electrical resistance, Re,load,
the voltage differences can drive an electric current I.
Thermoelectric power generation (cont.)

Thermoelectric effects also generate or absorb heat at interfaces

between dissimilar materials. Peltier heating, qP, is positive at the hot
side of the material (T1) and is negative at the cool side (T2) and is
described by (with T expressed in kelvins)
( )
qP = I ( S p - Sn )T I S p - n T (3.116)

differential Seebeck coefficient

Thermoelectric power generation (cont.)

Heat transfer to the circuit is q1, but because thermoelectric power is

generated by the circuit, P = I 2R e,load, heat transfer from the circuit
must be q2 < q1.

At the hot side of the circuit, an energy balance yields

q1 = q( x = - L) + qP ,1 = q( x = - L) + IS p - nT1 (3.119)

Heat conducted into the semiconducting material

Thermoelectric power generation (cont.)

q&

Also, Ohmic (I 2Re) heating occurs in the semiconducting material

and is
I re, s
2
q&= ( 3.117)

Ac2, s

Cross-sectional area of Electrical resistivity of

one semiconductor pellet [m2] the semiconducting material [W
m]
Thermoelectric power generation (cont.)

Assuming constant properties and using Equation C.7, the heat conducted
into the semiconducting material at the hot side is
Thermal conductivity of
the semiconductor material
k s I 2 r e,s L
q( x = - L) = 2 Ac ,s ( T1 - T2 ) - 2 ( 3.118b)
2 L A c ,s

Assuming the thin metal conductors pose negligible thermal resistance and
no contact resistance effects, combining Equations 3.118b and 3.119 yields
Ac , s k s I 2 re, s L
q1 = ( T1 - T2 ) + IS p - nT1 - 2 ( 3.121)
L Ac , s
A similar analysis can be performed for the cool side of the circuit (T2)
yielding

Ac , s ks I 2 re, s L
q2 = ( T1 - T2 ) + IS p - nT2 + 2 ( 3.122)
L Ac , s
Thermoelectric power generation (cont.)

From an energy balance on the entire circuit, the electric power produced
by the circuit, P, is
P = q1 - q2 ( 3.123)

Combining Equations 3.121 through 3.123 yields

I 2 re, s L
P = IS p - n (T1 - T2 ) - 4 = IS p - n (T1 - T2 ) - 2 I 2 Re,s ( 3.124)

Ac, s

where the electric power produced by the circuit is consumed in the load

P = I 2 Re,load
Thermoelectric power generation (cont.)

Equations 3.121, 3.122 and 3.124 may be generalized for a thermoelectric

module consisting of N pairs of semiconducting pellets.

(T1 - T2 )
q1 = + IS p - n,eff T1 - I 2 Re,eff ( 3.125)
Rt ,cond,mod

Conduction resistance Effective Seebeck Electrical resistance

of module = L/NAc,sks coefficient = NSp-n of module

(T1 - T2 )
q2 = + IS p - n,eff T2 + I 2 Re,eff ( 3.126)

Rt ,cond,mod

PN = q1 - q2 = IS p - n,eff (T1 - T2 ) - 2 I 2 Re,eff ( 3.127)

Electric power generated by the module

Problem: Thermoelectric power generation with radiation cooling

Problem 3.171: Cylindrical uranium heat source used for power generation
in space. Cooling of thermoelectric modules by radiation to deep
space (4K). M = 80 modules wired in series. Determine electric
power for E&g = 1, 10, 100 kW. Also determine the surface
temperature of the modules.

Schematic:

Module characteristics :

Rt,cond,mod = 1.736 K/W

Sp-n,eff = 0.1435 V/K
Re,eff = 4 W

Dimensions: WW

Assumptions: (1) One-dimensional, steady-state conduction, (2) Constant properties, (3) Large surroundings
(4) Module thermal resistance is dominated by the semiconducting pellets.
Problem: Thermoelectric power generation with radiation cooling (cont.)

Analysis: A thermal circuit may be drawn that incorporates Equations 3.125, 3.126, 3.127 and the radiation rate
equation. The circuit for one module is:

where q1 = E&g / M = E&g / 80

(1)
Problem: Thermoelectric power generation with radiation cooling (cont.)

From Equations 3.125 and 3.126,

1 (T1 - T2 )
q1 = (T1 - T2 ) + IS p -n,eff T1 - I 2 Re,eff = + I 0.1435 V/K T1 - I 2 4 W (2)
Rt ,cond,mod 1.736 K/W

1 (T1 - T2 )
q2 = (T1 - T2 ) + IS p - n,eff T2 + I 2 Re,eff = + I 0.1435 V/K T2 + I 2 4 W (3)
Rt ,cond,mod 1.736 K/W

For heat transfer by radiation to deep space,

q2 = hrW 2 (T2 - Tsur ) = hr (0.054 m) 2 (T2 - 4 K) (4)

where,

es+(
hr + )(T22 Tsur2 ) 0.93 5.67 10-8 W/m 2 K (T2
T2 Tsur=++= 4 K) (T22 (4 K) 2 ) (5)

The electric power produced by all M = 80 modules, Ptot, is related to the power
generated in each module, PN, and the load resistance, Re,load

Ptot = MPN = M
IS p -n,eff (T1 - T2 ) - 2 I 2 Re,eff
= I Re,load
2

or,
I 0.1435 V/K (T1 - T2 ) - 2 I 2 4 W
80
= I 250 W
2
(6)
E&g
Problem: Thermoelectric power generation with radiation cooling (cont.)

Upon specification ofE& Equation (1) may be solved for q1. Equations (2)
g
through (6) may then be solved simultaneously for T1, T2, I, q2, and hr.

E&g (kW) I (A) Ptot (W) T2 (K) h = PN /q1

1 0.10 2.63 534 0.0026
10 0.67 114 947 0.011 <
100 3.99 3990 1671 0.04

COMMENTS: (1) The temperature for the highest thermal energy generation rate is unacceptably
high. (2) The electric power generated is relatively high, but the conversion efficiency, h, is low. The
efficiency increases with generation rate because of larger temperature differences across the modules,
which are T = 8, 52, and 310 K for the low, medium, and high generation rates, respectively. (3) What
steps might be taken to increase T and, in turn, increase the conversion efficiency?
Micro- and Nanoscale Conduction

Micro- and Nanoscale Conduction:

Nature and Rationale
From Chapter 2, conduction may be viewed as a consequence of energy carrier
(molecule, electron, or phonon) motion. The carriers collide with each other
and with physical boundaries, affecting their propagation and heat transfer rates.

Conduction
in a gas

Gas molecule motion between two isothermal solid walls at Ts,1 > Ts,2.
The separation distance between the walls is L1 >> L2. Molecule-wall
collisions become more important as L/mfp becomes small, affecting
heat transfer by conduction through the gas layer, qx.
Conduction in a gas layer

The collision and scattering of a gas molecule with a solid surface is described
by a thermal accommodation coefficient, t. Molecule temperature
leaving the surface
T -T
t = i sc
Molecule temperature Ti - Ts ( 3.130)

prior to collision with Surface temperature

surface

Note: t = 1 Tsc = Ts t = 0 Tsc = Ti

For an ideal gas, the molecule-molecule and molecule-surface collisions may be

associated with thermal resistances:
Ts ,1 - Ts ,2 ( 3.131)
qx =
( Rt , m - m + Rt ,m - s )
where L mfp 2 - t
9g - 5
Rt ,m - m = and Rt ,m - s =
( 3.132a,b)
kA kA
t g + 1
and g = c p / cv
kA mfp
Note: qx ( Ts ,1 - Ts ,2 ) as 0
L L
Problem: Conduction through thin gas layers

Problem 3.173: Parallel aluminum plates, 10 mm 10 mm at Ts,1 = 305 K and

Ts,2 = 295 K. Determine conduction heat transfer through
intervening air layer for plate-plate spacing of L = 1 mm, 1 m,
and 10 nm. Thermal accommodation coefficient of t = 0.92.
Schematic:

Assumptions: (1) Ideal gas.

Properties: Table A.4 (T = 300 K): Air; cp = 1007 J/kgK, k = 0.0263 W/mK. Figure 2.8: Air;
M = 28.97 kg/kmol, d = 0.372 10-9 m.

Analysis: For air the ideal gas constant, specific heat at constant volume, and ratio of specific heats are:

R 8.315 kJ/kmol
K kJ
R= = = 0.287 ;
M 28.97 kg/kmol kg
K
kJ kJ kJ c p 1.007
cv = c p - R = 1.007 - 0.287 = 0.720 ; g = = = 1.399
kg
K kg
K kg
K cv 0.720
Problem: Conduction through thin gas layers (cont.)

From Equation 2.11 the mean free path of air is:

k BT 1.38110-23 J/K 300 K
mfp = = = 66.5 10-9 m = 66.5 nm
2p ( 0.372 10 m ) ( 1.0133 10 N/m )
2
2p d p2 -9 5 2

For L = 1 mm,
L 110-3 m
Rt ,m - m = = = 380.2 K/W
K 10 10-3 m 10 10 -3 m
kA 0.0263 W/m

mfp 2 - t
9g - 5 66.5 10-9 m 2 - 0.92
9 1.399 - 5
Rt ,m- s = =
kA t g + 1 + 0.0263 W/m K 100 10 m 0.92 1.399 1
-6 2
= 0.09392 K/W

Hence the conduction rate is:

Ts ,1 - Ts ,2 305K - 295K
qx = = = 0.0263 W
(R t ,m - m + Rt ,m - s ) ( 380.2 K/W + 0.09392 K/W ) <

Similarly, for L = 1 m,
Ts ,1 - Ts ,2 305K - 295K
qx = = = 21.09 W <
( Rt ,m-m + Rt ,m-s ) ( 0.3802 K/W + 0.09392 K/W )
And for L = 10 nm,
Ts ,1 - Ts ,2 305K - 295K
qx =
(R + Rt ,m - s )
=
( 0.0038 K/W + 0.09392 K/W )
= 102.3 W <
t ,m - m
Problem: Conduction through thin gas layers (cont.)

If the molecule-surface interaction and corresponding resistance is neglected, the conduction heat rate
is determined from
kA
qx =
L
( Ts,1 - Ts,2 ) ( 1)

The actual conduction heat transfer rates and conduction heat transfer rates calculated from Equation 1
are compared below.

L L/mfp qx (actual) qx (Equation 1)

1 mm 15,000 0.0263 W 0.0263 W

1 m 15 21.09 W 26.3 W

10 nm 0.15 102.3 W 2632 W

COMMENTS: For relatively large plate spacing, molecule-solid resistances may be safely neglected.
However, as L/mfp becomes smaller, such resistances may become important (L = 1 m) or
dominant (L = 10 nm).