Geology G100

Quick review for Test #2

Dr. Isiorho, IPFW 1

Sedimentation and Sedimentary Rocks
What is a sedimentary rock?

Dr. Isiorho, IPFW 2

 Sediments
Sediments are loose fragments of solid materials- pre-
existing rocks, remains of organisms, and precipitation of
minerals
Sediment textures- size, shape, and arrangement
are determined by transportation and depositional processes
Sorting
selecting particle based on size, shape and density
Shape
angular or irregular grains become rounded
longer travels lead to more rounding of grains

Dr. Isiorho, IPFW 3

From Sediments to Sedimentary
Rocks
Pressure, heat, and underground circulating
water produce changes in rocks- known as
Diagenesis
Lithification- conversion of loose sediments
into solid sedimentary rocks
Compaction- weight of overlying materials
Cementation- mineral precipitated in pore spaces

Recrystallization- less stable minerals change to

new stable minerals

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 Sedimentary Structures
Physical features that reflect condition of deposition
(how and where?)
Beddings (stratification)
sediments in distinct layers- separate depositional environments

Graded beddings
deposition occurs in relatively quiet waters

Cross bedding
sedimentary layers at an angle to underlying layers

Ripple marks
small surface ridges- produced by water or wind
Symmetrical & Asymmetrical
Mud crack
muddy sediments that dry and contracts

Bioturbation
No drawing provided

Dr. Isiorho, IPFW 5

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
Detrital and Chemical
Detrital- based on grain size
Mudstone- clay and silt size- constitute > 50% of all
detrital sedimentary rocks
Shale- clay and silt size particles- parallel layers- fissility

Siltstone- silt size particles

Sandstone- quartz arenite, arkose (with ~ 25% feldspar),

graywacke (lithic, dark fragments & fines)
Breccia- angular gravel size particles

Conglomerate- rounded gravel size particles

Dr. Isiorho, IPFW 6

 Sed. rock Classification contd.
Chemical- organic and inorganic
Organic- derived from living organism/biogenic
Limestone and chert- composed of skeletal remains of

animals
coal- carbon rich remains of terrestrial plants

Inorganic Sedimentary Rocks

Direct precipitation from water
e.g. Limestone, chert

Evaporation of saline water

evaporite- gypsum, halite, dolostone

Dr. Isiorho, IPFW 7

 Sedimentary Environments

Continental
rivers, lakes, caves, desert, glaciers- mostly detrital
Transitional- coastal- along ocean shores
estuaries and deltas
Marine
shallow-above continental shelf (< 200m (700))
deep- beyond the continental shelf
Sedimentary Facies- sediments deposits at the same time but in
different environments as a horizontal continuum of distinct rock
type
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 Metamorphic Rocks
Altered rocks

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 Definitions
Metamorphic rock is formed when existing
rocks change due to subjection to pressure and
or temperature
Any rock can undergo metamorphism
Metamorphism is the process by which heat,
pressure, and chemical reactions deep within
the earth alter the mineral content and or
structure of existing rock without melting it
down
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 What Drives Metamorphism
Heat
Accelerate pace of chemical reactions
Pressure
Lithostatic (confining)- rock becomes smaller and denser
Directed- minerals become aligned- Foliation
Circulating Fluids
Ions in water- change mineral composition
Parent Rocks
Original rocks composition will affect the outcome of
metamorphism

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 Types of Metamorphism
Contact
Heat is the dominant factor
Area affected generally smaller than regional metarmorphism
Regional are two types with extensive coverage
Burial- occurs in deep sedimentary basins- no plate tectonics
involved
Dynamothermal- occurs where converging plates squeeze a rock
caught between them
Others
Hydrothermal- involves hot water from magma
Fault-zone- rocks grinding past one another
Shock- meteorites strike
Pyrometamorphism- lightning

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 Metamorphic Rock Types
Foliated- based on type of foliation
Slate- fine grain
Phyllite- fine grain with sheen
Schist- has split appearance
Gneiss- layers/bands of minerals
Non-foliated- based on mineral composition
Marble
Quartzite
Hornsfel
Mixed Rock
Migmatite- indicates partial melting

Dr. Isiorho, IPFW 13

 Metamorphism
Temperature & Pressure
Information about degree to which a metamorphic
rock differs from its parent material
Metamorphic Grade-
low (200-400) slate
high (500-800) gneiss
Index minerals/metamorphic Zones are used to
determine metamorphic condition of temperature and
pressure
Chlorite, muscovite-low grade (low P/T)
Garnet, staurolite- intermediate
Sillimanite- high grade (high P/T)
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 How old is the Rock?
How can we tell the age of rocks?

Geochronology

Dr. Isiorho, IPFW 15

 Geochronology
Geochronology is the study of time in relation
to earths existence
Relative Dating
Determines how old a rock is in relation to its
surrounding
Numerical Dating (Absolute Age?)
Determines actual age in years

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 Relative Dating
Relies on Key Principles such as
Uniformitarianism- the present is key to the past
Original horizontality
Sediments deposited in horizontal layers

Superposition
Youngest rocks are on top (assuming no tectonic activity)

Cross-cutting relationships
Cut layer is older than cutting rock

Faunal succession
Organisms succeed one another in recognizable reproducible
pattern
Unconformity
Represents a break (gap) in the rock record

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 Numerical Age
Isotope Dating relies on the rate of decay of
radioactive isotopes within a rock
Radioactive isotopes have nuclei that spontaneously
decay emitting or capturing a variety of subatomic
particles
Decaying radioactive isotope- parent isotopes decay
to form daughter isotopes
Half-life- is the time it takes for half the atoms of
parent isotope to decay
Some radioactive isotopes with daughter products
U-238 => Pb-206; K-40 => Ar-40; C-14 => N-14
Dr. Isiorho, IPFW 18
 Factors Affecting Isotope Dating
Results
Isotope dating is more useful for igneous rocks
Clock is set when igneous rock crystallizes locking the radioactive
isotopes within its crystal lattice
Rock/Mineral must be a closed system
Atoms of parent and daughter are still present in rock/mineral being dated
Condition of parent Material
Fracture, weathering and migrating ground water
Age of Substance
Enough measurable daughter isotope, use appropriate radioactive isotope

Dr. Isiorho, IPFW 19

 Other Numerical Dating
Techniques
Fission Track
High speed particles emitted during radiation may pass through crystal leaving
tears within the crystal- the older the rock, the more fission tracks
Dendrochronology (Tree-Ring dating)
Annual growth rings
Varve- deposited layers of lake-bottom
Paired layers of sediments
Lichenometry
Lichens grow at a fairly constant rate
Cosmogenic isotopes
Used in dating land features

Dr. Isiorho, IPFW 20

 Geologic Time Scale
Contrasting several dating techniques chronicling
Earths history to produce a geologic Time Scale
Geologic Time Scale- divided into Eons, Eras,
Periods, and Epoches
Phanerozoic Eon (evidence of life began) divided into
three eras
Paleozoic (ancient life) dominated by marine invertebrates
Mesozoic (middle life) dominated by reptiles
Cenozoic (recent life) dominated by mammals

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 The Earth moves
Its not an earthquakebut the earth materials

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 Mass Movement
Process that transports Earths materials
downslope by the pull of gravity
Friction, strength, and cohesiveness of materials
resist mass movement
Angle of slope (sloppiness), water content, lack of

vegetation, and biological disturbances enhance

mass wasting

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 Causes of Mass Movement
Steepness of Slope
Faulting, folding, river cut, glacial, coastal wave create
steep slope
Composition of Material either promotes or resists
mass wasting
Solid /Unconsolidated
Vegetation- lack of which promotes mass wasting
Water Content- increases weight of material and
reduces friction between planes of weakness
Human/Other Disturbances

Dr. Isiorho, IPFW 24

 Triggers for Mass Movement
Events
Natural Triggers
Climatic- torrential rains and snow melt
Geologic- earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
Human-Induced Triggers
Oversteeping of slopes- excavation
Overloading- excess water, building, and other construction
Deforestation/overgrazing of vegetation
Loud noise- trains, aircrafts, blasting

Dr. Isiorho, IPFW 25

 Mass Wasting Types
Classification is based on composition and velocity
Creep- slowest form
Slides- move along a plane of weakness
Slumps- move along concave slip surfaces
Flows- rocks and soils have with excess water
Falls- fastest type
Landslide is a general term for downslope movement

Dr. Isiorho, IPFW 26

 Reducing Mass Movement
Avoiding
Predicting mass movement
Terrain analysis, field visit, eye witness/recorded accounts

Vegetation- over grazing, harvesting

Preventing
Develop Prevention Plan
Enhance Forces that Resist or Reduce forces of mass wasting
Structural Approach- reduce slope
Non-Structural Approach- tree, chemical stability

Dr. Isiorho, IPFW 27

 Study for Test #2
Use the class notes/textbook and the links
provided in the syllabus.
Its an open book test and the Honor System
prevailsno help from any one, no
collaboration

Dr. Isiorho, IPFW 28

 Some key words for Test #2
Some key words for test #2
Cementation, crystallization, Compaction
Transportation of sediments results in..
Rock salt, sandstone, siltstone, coal, arkose, graywacke
Quartzite, marble, slate, schist, migmatite, order of
metamorphism
Types of metamorphism, parent materials of some
metamorphic rocks
Relative age and principles of Superposition, original
horizontality, faunal succession, cross-cutting, unconformities,
radiometric dating, half life..

Dr. Isiorho, IPFW 29