Chapter 17

Evolution of
High-Mass Stars

21st CENTURY ASTRONOMY

Fifth EDITION
Kay | Palen | Blumenthal
Exploding Star

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 High-Mass Stars, Part 1

High-mass stars live different, faster lives.

On the main sequence, energy is generated from
the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle, with
carbon as a catalyst:

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 High-Mass Stars, Part 2
High-mass stars have convection to mix H in
the core.
Increases the mass available for fusion.
Once H is exhausted from the core, the star
leaves the main sequence and expands and
cools.

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Post-Main Sequence Evolution, Part 1

Move right on the H-

R diagram:
supergiants.
Ignite He in a
nondegenerate core,
unlike low-mass
stars.
With rising central
temperatures,
heavier elements
(C, Ne, etc.) fuse,
generating energy.

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PostMain-Sequence Evolution, Part 2

The more massive the

star, the heavier the
elements that can fuse.
As temperature rises and
core fuel is used up,
heavier and heavier
elements will fuse, up
until iron.
The fusion shells build up
like the layers of an
onion.

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Instabilities, Part 1

As high-mass stars
expand and cool,
they can pass
through the
instability strip on
the HR diagram.
Here, the
combination of
temperature and
luminosity results
in the stars
pulsation.

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Instabilities, Part 2

These pulsating
variable stars
are extremely
important for
determining
distances.
Specifically, they
have a period-
luminosity
relationship.

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Types of Pulsating Stars

Cepheid variables:
High-mass stars
becoming supergiants.
Periods from 1 to 100
days.
More luminous stars
have longer periods.
RR Lyrae variables:
Low-mass stars on the
horizontal branch.
Less luminous than
Cepheid variables.

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The End of Fusion

Fusion of iron or
more massive
elements requires
energythe star
cannot use them
for fuel.
Once the star has
an iron core, it
cannot generate
more energy.
Fusion stops, and
the core collapses.
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Final Days of a High-Mass Star

Each stage of burning

is progressively shorter.
Example: Si burning
lasts for only a few days.
Why? Huge production
of neutrinos, which carry
away energy (neutrino
cooling).
The star cannot access
the huge amount of
energy produced in
neutrinos.
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 Out With a Bang, Part 1

Core collapses, central temperature rises.

Photodisintegration, neutrino cooling reduces
pressure, collapse accelerates.
Electron degeneracy cannot help.
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 Out With a Bang, Part 2

Collapses until it reaches nuclear densities.

At these high densities, nuclear forces repel
atoms.
Core stops, bounces back, driving a shock wave
through star.
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 Out With a Bang, Part 3

Shock wave takes a mere few hours to rip

through the star.
Outer layers blow off in tremendous explosion
(Type II supernova).
Dense core remains.
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 Type II Supernova, Part 1

Light energy emitted is about 1 billion Suns.

Kinetic energy of blown-off outer parts: 100x.
This kinetic energy is transferred to the interstellar
medium (ISM), heating it.
Neutrinos carry off an energy of 100 times larger
still!
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Type II Supernova, Part 2

Shock wave heats

and pushes the
ISM.
New elements
created in the
explosion
(nucleosynthesis).
Most atoms heavier
than iron are made
in supernova
explosions.

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One way to tell supernova types apart is with a light
curve showing how luminosity changes with time.

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 Neutron Stars, Part 1

If the star is not too massive, the Type II

supernova leaves behind a neutron-degenerate
core: neutron star.
Mass between 1.4 and 3 M, radius ~ 10 km.
Some neutron stars are found in X-ray binaries,
and give off strong X-rays.

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Neutron Stars, Part 2

Others are found

as pulsars
(rapidly rotating
neutron stars).
Highly
magnetized.
Beam of radiation
sweeps by Earth
like a lighthouse
beam.

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The Crab Nebula

The Crab Nebula is

the remnant of a
Type II supernova
first witnessed by the
Chinese in 1054 CE
and recorded as a
guest star, lasting in
the sky for over three
weeks.
Its glow is powered
by a pulsar.

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 Discovery of Neutron Stars

Using a radio telescope in 1967, Jocelyn Bell noticed very

regular pulses of radio emission coming from a single
part of the sky.
The pulses were coming from a spinning neutron stara
pulsar.

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Why Pulsars Must Be Neutron Stars

Circumference of NS = 2 (radius)
~ 60 km

Spin rate of fast pulsars ~ 1000 cycles

per second

Surface rotation velocity ~ 60,000 km/s

~ 20% speed
of light
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What can happen to a neutron star in a close binary
system?

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Matter falling toward a neutron star forms an accretion disk,
just as in a white dwarf binary.

2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 2016 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.
 X-Ray Bursts

Matter accreting onto a

neutron star fuses
hydrogen to helium in the
inner part of the disk. As
it lands on the neutron
star, it can eventually
become hot enough for
helium fusion.

The sudden onset of fusion

produces a burst of X
rays.

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 Accreting matter adds
angular momentum to a
neutron star, increasing its
spin.

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Star Clusters and Stellar Evolution, Part 1

Star clusters are bound

groups of stars, all made
at the same time from
the same material.
Globular clusters are
very dense with up to
millions of stars.
Open clusters are
looser, with a few dozen
to a few thousand stars.

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 Star Clusters and Stellar Evolution, Part 2

H-R diagrams of open and globular clusters look

very different due to stellar evolution since the stars
in them all formed around the same time: snapshots
of evolution.
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 Star Clusters and Stellar Evolution, Part 3

Young clusters still have massive stars on MS.

In older clusters, massive stars have died.
Location of main-sequence turnoff gives cluster
age.
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 Composition of Stars and Planets
Star clusters have different colors relating to the
abundances of stars in them.
Reflects the idea of stellar populations: groups
of stars with similar ages and other shared
characteristics.
Young stars have more massive elements in
them than older stars, and their clusters are
bluer.
Supernovae seed the universe with massive
elements.
Earth could not have the elements it has were it
not for prior supernovae.
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PROCESS OF SCIENCE

Often the simplest

answer is the
correct one.
Occams razor.
For example,
pulsars are more
easily explained as
rotating neutron
stars than as
signals from little
green men.

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Working It Out 17.1Binding Energy of Atomic Nuclei

The net energy released by a nuclear reaction

is the difference between the binding energy of
the products and the binding energy of the
reactants.
For the triple-alpha process:

For the fusion of iron, the binding energy of the

products is less than that of the reactants, so the
net energy is negative.
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 Working It Out 17.2Gravity on a Neutron Star
Neutron stars are incredibly dense and therefore
have very high surface gravity and escape
velocities.
Surface gravity:

Escape velocity:

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 Check Your Understanding 17.1

How does energy production in a high-mass, main-

sequence star differ from energy production in the
Sun? (Choose all that apply.):

a) High-mass stars get a lot of energy through non-nuclear

processes;
b) High-mass stars produce energy at a faster rate;
c) High-mass stars burn carbon on the main sequence;
d) Stars use carbon in a process that fuses hydrogen to
helium.

2016 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.

 Check Your Understanding 17.2

What causes a high-mass star to explode as a Type II

supernova?

a) The high-mass star merges with another star.;

b) Iron absorbs energy when it fuses;
c) The high-mass star runs out of mass in the core;
d) The CNO cycle uses up all the carbon.

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 Check Your Understanding 17.3

One reason astronomers think neutron stars were

formed in supernova explosions is that:

a) all supernova remnants contain pulsars;

b) pulsars are made of heavy elements, such as those
produced in supernova explosions;
c) pulsars spin very rapidly, as did the massive star just
before it exploded;
d) pulsars sometimes have material around them that
looks like the ejecta from supernovae.

2016 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.

 Check Your Understanding 17.4

If the main-sequence turnoff of a globular cluster

occurs near the very top of the main sequence, then
the cluster is:

a) very old;
b) very young;
c) very hot;
d) very dense.

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 Astronomy in Action Type II Supernova

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 Astronomy in Action Pulsar Rotation

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 Nebraska Applet
CNO Cycle

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Nebraska Applet H-R Diagram Explorer

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 Nebraska Applet
H-R Diagram Star Cluster Fitting Explorer

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 This concludes the Lecture PowerPoint presentation for Chapter 17

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21st CENTURY ASTRONOMY

Fifth EDITION
Kay | Palen | Blumenthal