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Coordination and Response

Mrs. Zubda Atta


Curriculum Content:
Reaction time:
Firing of the gun is silent, and is transmitted as an electrical signal along wires to individual spea
kers in each runners starting blocks. Each runner should hear the sound of gun at exactly the sa
me moment.
100 m final 2012 Olympics gold medalist Usain Bolts reaction time was 0.165 s.
The fastest was of Martina was 0.139 s
Reaction time of less than 0.1 s is judged to have pushed off before the gun was
fired and is disqualified.
Stimulus a change in an organisms surroundings that can be detected by its
sense organs.
Receptors a cell that is able to detect changes in the environment; often part of a
sense organ
Effectors a part of the body that responds to a stimulus muscle or a gland
Animals need fast and efficient communication systems between their receptors and
effectors to respond quickly to catch food or avoid predators
Happens two ways:
Nervous system sends electrical messages along nerves to and from body parts
Endocrine system sends chemical messages to target organs in blood
Human nervous system:
The human nervous system is made up of two parts:

Central nervous system (CNS) - brain and spinal cord:


role of coordination
Peripheral nervous system - nerves: connect all parts of
the body to the CNS.
Together, they coordinate and regulate body functions.
Sense organs are linked to the peripheral nervous
system. They are groups of receptor cells responding to
specific stimuli: light, sound, touch, temperature and
chemicals. When exposed to a stimulus they generate an
electrical impulse which passes along peripheral nerves to
the CNS, triggering a response.
Neurones:
The cytoplasm (mainly axon and dendron) is elongated to transmit
the impulse for long distances.
Peripheral nerves contain sensory and motor neurones (nerve cells).
Motor and sensory neurones are covered with a myelin sheath, which
insulates the neurone to make transmission of the impulse more
efficient.
The human nervous system runs on electrical impulses that travel close to the speed of light
Synapses:
Neurones do not connect directly with each other: there is a small gap called synaptic
cleft.
The ends of the two neurons on either side of the cleft plus the cleft itself is
called a synapse.
The impulse is 'transmitted' across the synapse by means of a chemical called
acetylcholine.
How does an impulse travel from one neurone
to next:
Sensory neurone axon has hundreds of tiny vacuoles (vesicles) containing
a neurotransmitter.
Impulse arrives along this axon causes vesicles to move to the cell
membrane to empty the neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft quickly
diffuses across the gap attach to receptor molecules in cell membrane of
relay neurone. (both shapes are complementary to each other)
This binding triggers a nerve impulse in the relay neurone.
Synapses act like one way valves
The junction between two nerve cells, consisting of a minute gap across
which impulses pass by diffusion of a neurotransmitter is a synapse.
Reflex arcs:
A reflex action is an automatic response to a stimulus.
A reflex arc describes the pathway of an electrical impulse in response to a stimulus.
We do not think about it. Our brain is made aware of it but we only consciously
realize what is happening after the message has been sent on to our muscles.
Relay neurones are found in the spinal cord, connecting sensory neurones to
motor neurones.
Reflex: automatically and rapidly integrating and coordinating stimuli with
responses.
Reflex actions are example of involuntary actions.
The sequence of events is:
How are they helpful:
Voluntary and involuntary actions:
Two types of action controlled by the human nervous system are:
voluntary and involuntary actions. The peripheral nerves transmit both of
them.
The brain is involved in voluntary actions, in which a conscious choic
e is made about the response to a particular stimulus.
Involuntary reflexes concerned with housekeeping tasks like breath
ing do not reach the conscious level of brain. They are dealt with by
the autonomic nervous system.
Responses may be more complex than simple reflex arc. The CN
S may store information as memory and then compare incoming stimu
lus with previous and choose the response and sends information to eff
ectors to bring action. Each time a particular stimulus leads to a certain
response the impulse passes along the same route so the reflex action be
comes learned reflex. Talking and cycling. Whether or not a reflex has b
een learned, it is an involuntary action a particular stimulus always lea
ds to same response.
Voluntary actions require a consci
ous decision by the brain the org
anism has a choice in the selection
of the response.

Involuntary actions do not involve


any conscious decision by the brai
n. The organism has no choice th
e response automatically follows t
he stimulus.
Receptors sense organs:
Group of receptor cells or
nerve endings responding to
a specific stimuli:
light, sound, touch,
temperature and
chemicals often part
of a sense organ
The structure of eye:
Eye is the sense organ
Retina of the eye contains the receptor cells sensitive to light rest of eye
helps to protect it or to focus light onto it.
Bony socket in skull orbit contains the eye.
Front is covered by thin, transparent membrane conjunctiva kept moist
by fluid made in tear glands (contains lysozyme to kill bacteria)
Eyelids blink to wash fluid over the eye. Also eyelids, eyelashes and eyebrows
stop dirt entering.
The part inside orbit is covered by tough coat sclera.
The retina:
When light falls onto the receptor cell in retina (at back of eye), an electric i
mpulse is send along the optic nerve to the brain.
The brain sorts out all impulses and build up the image.
Some receptor cells are sensitive to light of different colours enabling us to
see coloured images.
The closer the receptor cells, the clearer the image brain gets.
Fovea is the part of retina were receptor cells are most closely packed
together the part were light is focused when you look straight at an object.
Blind spot is where the optic nerve leaves the retina and has no receptor cells
if light falls here, no impulse is sent.
Behind retina is black layer choroid it absorbs all light after it has been th
rough retina so not to let it scatter inside eye
Choroid is rich in blood vessels to nourish the eye
Receptor cells in retina:
Rods and cones
Rods are sensitive to dim light not respond to colour
Cones can distinguish between different colours of light but only function
when light is quite bright.
Three different types of cones sensitive to red, green and blue light.
Rods allow us to see in dim light but in black and white while cones give us
colour vision.
Fovea contains almost all cones packed tightly (sharp image) rods are
found further out on retina, less tightly packed (less detailed image).
The iris:
In front of lens is circular piece of tissue the iris the coloured part of eye
It contains pigments that absorb light and stop it getting to retina.
In middle of iris is gap called pupil size can be adjusted to control how
much light enters.
To do this iris contains muscles circular and radial muscles
Iris reflex although the nerve impulses go into brain, we do not need to
think consciously about what to do.
It prevents damage to the retina.
Activity given in cd with book
Focusing light:
For the brain to see a clear image, clear image must be focused onto retina
light rays can be bent or refracted to focus exactly onto retina.
Humours are colourless and transparent to allow light to pass through easily.
Cornea bends most light and lens makes fine adjustments both focus light
onto retina.
The image made is upside down interpreted by brain so you see it right way
up.
Adjusting the focus:
Not all rays need bending by same amount.
Example:
light rays from a distant object will almost be parallel to one another
so will not need much bending.
light rays from a nearby object are diverging (going away from one
another) so they will need to be bent inwards strongly.
How?
The shape of the lens can be adjusted to bend light rays more or less.
The thicker the lens, the more it will bend light rays the thinner it is, the
less it will bend.
The lens is held in position by a ring of suspensory ligaments.
The tension on suspensory ligaments and thus shape of lens is altered by
ciliary muscle.
How?
When ciliary muscle contracts, the suspensory ligaments are loosened the
lens gets thicker.
When it relaxes, they are pulled tight the lens is pulled thin.
As the ciliary muscles are relaxed, there is no strain on the eye.
As the ciliary muscles are contracted, there is strain on the eye, which can cause a headache if
a near object (book, microscope, computer screen etc. ) is viewed for too long.
The endocrine system:
Animals also use chemicals to transmit information from one part of body to
another hormones made in endocrine glands.
These have blood capillaries running through them hormone is released directly in
to blood.
Other glands dont do this salivary glands
Endocrine glands are ductless glands secrete their hormones directly into
bloodstream.
Hormone in blood is carried to all body parts dissolved in plasma each affecting
only certain parts of body target organs.
Hormone is a chemical substance, secreted by endocrine gland, carried by the blood,
which alters the activity of one or more specific target organs and is then destroyed
by the liver.
Adrenaline:
One adrenal gland above each kidney makes
hormone adrenalin when frightened, excited
or keyed up, nerve impulses from brain to
adrenal glands make them secrete adrenalin in
blood.
Helps to cope with danger makes heart beat
faster, supplying oxygen to brain and muscles
for fighting or running away + blood vessels in
skin and digestive system contract and you go
pale and have butterflies in stomach + causes
liver to release glucose in blood for muscles.
Coordination and response in plants:
Plants responses are much slower than those of animals - some
responses result in growth respond by changing their rate or
direction of growth by growing towards or away from a stimulus.
Growth towards a stimulus is positive response and vice versa
responses are called tropism it is a growth response by a plant in
which the direction of growth is affected by direction of stimulus.
Important stimuli for plants are light and gravity shoots normally
grow towards light, roots do not respond to light although few grow
away from it shoots grow away from gravity while roots grow
towards it.
Geotropism is a response in which plant grows towards or away from gravity.
Phototropism is a response in which plant grows towards or away from light.
Both are very important for the plant the more light leaves have the more
photosynthesis + flowers are pollinated.
Roots growing downwards anchor the plant and absorb water and minerals.
How a shoot responds to light?
Plants do not have complex sense organs, muscles, glands or
nervous system. How do they respond to a stimulus?
An experiment can be done to show which part of shoot picks
up the stimulus of light. Sensitive region is the tip where the
receptor is.
The part of shoot that responds to the stimulus is just below
the tip which is the effector.
These two parts of shoot communicate with one another by
means of hormones.
Auxin:
It is being made all the time by cells in the tip of shoot and
diffuses downwards into rest of the shoot.
It makes the cells just behind the tip get longer. The more the
auxin, the more they will grow.
When light shines from all around, auxin is distributed evenly
around the tip the cells all grow at same rate shoot grows
straight upward in plants growing outside.
When light shines from one side, auxin concentration is on
the shady side the cells on shady side grow faster than ones
on bright side shoot bends towards light.
When potted Coleus plant is placed on its side in a dark room shoot bend
upwards since no light it is presumed a response due to gravity how?
When stem is in horizontal position, auxin collects on lower side of it
causing faster growth there stem curves
upward.
In the bean seedling, auxin has built up on lower surface of root effect is
opposite this amount of auxin slows down growth on this side radicle
bends downwards.
Auxin in phototropism:
If a shoot is exposed to light from one side
More auxins are moving in the shaded side (from the tip of the shoot)
On this side, cells are stimulated to absorb more water, plant grows
more
Shoot bends toward the light.
This is called positive phototropism.
If a root is exposed to light in the absence of gravity
More auxins are moving in the shaded side (from the tip of the root)
On this side, cells are stimulated to absorb less water, plant grows less
Root bends away from the light.
This is called negative phototropism.
Auxin in geotropism:
If a shoot is placed horizontally in the absence of light:
Auxins accumulate on the lower side of the shoot, due to gravity.
Cells on the lower side grow more quickly
The shoot bends upwards.
This is called negative geotropism.
If a root is placed horizontally in the absence of light:
Auxins accumulate on the lower side of the shoot, due to gravity.
Cells on the lower side grow more slowly
The shoot bends downwards.
This is called positive geotropism.
Plants become etiolated in dark:
Seedlings that grow in dark are pale, thin and tall why?
In darkness also auxin is distributed evenly around the tip
shoot grows rapidly upward but chloroplasts do not
develop properly yellow and spindly plants with smaller leaves
that are often further apart etiolated.
If they get light fine, if not they die as they can not
photosynthesize.
Plant hormones used in food production:
Gardeners and horticulturalists use plant hormones to:
improve look of gardens
increase yields from plants
speed up rate at which they produce new plants
Most weed killers contain plant hormones often a type of auxin
synthetic.
Ones used in lawns are selective weed killers that affect weeds but not grass
weeds respond by growing very fast, then die leaving more space,
nutrients and water for grass to grow farmers use similar weed killers.
Fruit growers use plant hormones to help fruits grow larger or ripen well
many fruits produce gas ethane when they are ripening that encourages
other fruits near them to ripen - green tomatoes are picked, stored or
transported without worry of going bad, suppliers expose them to ethane
to ripen.

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