Sight Distances

CE 453 Lecture 8
Objectives
1. Know 5 types of sight distance and important
determinants
Important Sight Distances
1. Stopping
2. Decision
3. Passing
4. Intersection
5. Crossing RR
Sight Distance in Design
For safety, should provide sight distance of
sufficient length so that drivers can control
the operation of their vehicles to avoid
striking an unexpected object in the traveled
way - STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (SSD)
Certain 2-lane roads should have sufficient
sight distance to enable drivers to occupy the
opposing traffic lane for passing other
vehicles without risk of crash - PASSING
SIGHT Distance (PSD)
Green Book (AASHTO) Policy
Question
Sight distance assumes drivers are
traveling at:
A. The posted speed limit
B. 10 mph above the speed limit
C. The 85% percentile spot speed of the
facility
D. The design speed of the facility
Design Policy - Response
Sight distance assumes drivers are
traveling at:
A. The posted speed limit
B. 10 mph above the speed limit
C. The 85% percentile spot speed of the
facility
D. The design speed of the facility
GB Question
Stopping sight distance is composed of
two distances, what are they?
GB Question with response
Stopping sight distance is composed of
two distances, what are they?
Distance traveled during
perception/reaction time
Distance required to physically brake
vehicle
Studies on
Perception/Reaction Time
321 drivers (Johansson and Ruma): drivers
expected to use brakes
Median: 0.66 sec
90th percentile: >= 1.5 sec
Unexpected, response time increased by ~ 1
sec
Some drivers took over 3.5 seconds to
respond even under simple test condition
GB Question
AASHTO GB recommends 2.5 seconds,
this is adequate for conditions that are
more complex than the simple
conditions used in laboratory and road
tests, but is not adequate for what?
Class - develop a table to track
variations in policy assumptions
Case PR Accel. Eye Object Notes
Time rate height height
SSD 2.5 11.2 3.5 2.0 Object =
tail light
ht.

***

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Sight distance

Distance a driver can see ahead at any specific time

Must allow sufficient distance for a driver to
perceive/react and stop, swerve etc when necessary
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

Required for every point

along alignment (horizontal
and vertical) Design for it,
or sign for lower, safe speed
Available SSD = f(roadway
alignment, objects off the
alignment, object on road
height
SSD = PRD + BD (with final
velocity V2 = 0)
Criteria for Sight Distance
Driver eye height: for passenger
vehicles = 3.5 ft above surface
Height of object in roadway = 2 feet
(SSD) why?
Height of opposing vehicle = 3.5 feet
(PSD)
 Deceleration rate: AASHTO: 11.2 ft/s2
Deceleration is within capability of drivers
to stay within their lane and control the
vehicle when braking on wet surfaces
and is comfortable for most drivers
AASHTO represents friction as a/g which is a function
of the roadway, tires, etc
Can use when deceleration is known (usually not)
BD = V2
30[ (a) G]
(g)
Where:
BD = braking distance (ft)
V = speed (mph)
a = deceleration rate (ft/s2)
G = grade (decimal)
g = acceleration due to gravity =32.2 ft/s2
 Braking Distance

Assumes a rate of deceleration, driver may brake harder

a = 11.2 ft/sec2 normal
a = 14.8 ft/sec2 emergency, use tables from AASHTO
Friction is a function of pavement condition (wet, icy),
tire, and roadway surface
Depends on weight, but some assumptions are made to
arrive at a standard equation
 SSD Equation
SSD = 1.47ut + _____u2_____
30({a/g} G)
SSD in feet
u speed in mph
t perception/reaction time (in seconds)
a assumed deceleration rate (ft/sec2)
g gravitational force (32.2 ft /sec2)
G gradient in ft/ft
SSD Example
Use basic assumptions to determine SSD at 60 mph on
a) 0% grade, b) 3% grade

SSD = 1.47u(2.5 sec) + ________u2________

30({11.2/32.2} + 0.00)

SSD = 220.5 + 345.5 = 556 ft

(compare to table 3-1 in GB See next slide)

On a +3% grade, SSD = 220 +318 = 538 ft

 Stopping (emergency)
SSD (Table 3-1)

Source: A Policy on Geometric Design of

Highways and Streets (The Green Book).
Washington, DC. American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials,
2001 4th Ed.
 SSD Example
Given: Available Sight distance = 430 on a +3%
grade.Find maximum speed if perception reaction time
is assumed to be 2.5 seconds

430 feet = 1.47u(2.5 sec) + ________u2________

30({11.2/32.2} + 0.03)

430 feet = 3.68u + ________u2________

30(0.378)

Solving for u, u = 52.0 mph (Set speed at 50 mph)

Discuss: Would this be an acceptable condition if the road is generally

posted for 60 mph?
Stopping Sight Distance Example

Consider analysis when vehicle skids across

different surfaces (a/g is not equal to 0.35)

Or final velocity is not zero at the end of the

skid, as evidenced because the vehicle
sustains crushing damage until the vehicle is
stopped.
Stopping Sight Distance
With assumed acceleration, using friction
S = PRD + Db
= 1.47vot + vo2 - vf2
30(f G)
where:
terms are as before, except
vo = original velocity
vf = final velocity at impact
Stopping Sight Distance Example
Accident Reconstruction:
Average Skid Mark = 47 feet
Crush damage indicates 20 to 30 mph speed at impact
f = 0.65 (how do they know this?), level roadway, and 40 mph posted speed.

Was vehicle speeding?

47 feet skid represents what? BD?

If final speed is 30 mph

BD = 47 = (Vi2 302)/30(0.65 + 0)
Vi = 42.6 mph

If final speed is 20 mph (Vi = 36.3 mph)

What if pavement changes to gravel after 47 feet and car slides

another 30 feet (f = 0.7)? What is initial speed?
Typical values for friction

Values of friction vary widely with road surface

type, age, condition. Examples:
Surface type f (or a/g)
Concrete pavement -dry 0.60 to .75
Concrete pavement wet 0.45 to .65
Asphalt pavement 0.55 to .70
Gravel 0.40 to .70
Ice 0.05 to .20
Snow 0.30 to .60
Source: Lynn Fricke, Northwestern Univ.
Decision Sight Distance
SSD are sufficient to allow reasonably
competent and alert drivers to come to a
hurried stop under ordinary circumstances
May be inadequate when drivers must make
complex or instantaneous decisions, when
information is difficult to perceive or when
unexpected or unusual maneuvers are
required
Equations in book, use tables
 Decision Sight Distance
When situation is unexpected or driver makes unusual
maneuvers or under difficult to perceive situations
Requires higher P/R time
Depends on type of maneuver made and roadway
setting (urban vs. rural)
Use table 3.5 from Text, page 75
Decision
(controlled stop, speed/path/route
change) DSD (Table 3-3)

Source: A
Policy on
Geometric
Design of
Highways and
Streets (The
Green Book).
Washington,
DC. American
Association of
State Highway
and
Transportation
Officials, 2001
4th Ed.
 Passing Sight Distance
Assumptions (conservative?):

1. Vehicle being passed travels at uniform speed

2. Speed of passing vehicle is reduced behind passed vehicle as it
reaches passing section
3. Time elapses as driver reaches decision to pass
4. Passing vehicle accelerates during the passing maneuver and
velocity of the passing vehicle is 10 mph greater than that of
the passed vehicle
5. Enough distance is allowed between passing and oncoming
vehicle when the passing vehicle returns to its lane
Source: A
Policy on
Geometric
Design of
Highways and
Streets (The
Green Book).
Washington,
DC. American
Association of
State Highway
and
Transportation
Officials, 2001
4th Ed.
 Passing Sight Distance
Dpassing = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4

d1 = distance traveled during P/R time to point where

vehicle just enters the left lane

d1 = 1.47t1(u m + at1)
2
where
t1 = time for initial maneuver (sec)
u = average speed of passing vehicle (mph)
a = acceleration (mph/s)
m = difference between speeds of passing and passed
vehicle
 Passing Sight Distance

Dpassing = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4

d2 = distance traveled by vehicle while in left lane

d2 = 1.47ut2
where:
u = speed of passing vehicle (mph)
t2 = time spent passing in left lane (sec)
 Passing Sight Distance
Dpassing = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4

d3 = clearance distance varies from 110 to 300 feet

d4 = distance traveled by opposing vehicle during passing

maneuver

d4 usually taken as 2/3 d2

 PSD - observations
Would new research be of value?:
a = acceleration rates range from 1.40 to 1.5 mph/sec2
(could this element be ignored in d1?)
What % of total distance is this portion of PSD?

acceleration rates in the formula have not changed

since 1954.

clearance interval distances, d3: apparently based on

observation of driver behavior. Tabled values have not
changed since 1954.
Important Sight Distances
(cont.)
4. Intersection (turning/crossing) - ISD (Chap
9) we will come back to this
5. Crossing RR (Chap 9)
1. Stop, proceed, proceed from stop
 Crossing RR
Stop,
proceed,
proceed from
stop
 What are the key variables?

 Key issues in safe crossing

Speeds
Distance from front of vehicle to drivers eye
Distance from rail to front of vehicle
Assumptions about PR time and braking distance
Width of crossing
Distance from end of vehicle after crossing
Length of vehicle
Acceleration capability of road vehicle

Offset of obstruction from the road and the rail line

 Question for Next Class
Be prepared to report on the acceleration rates used in
passing sight distance in 1954, with the acceleration
rates for trucks accelerating from a railroad crossing in
2005