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Elliptic Curves
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Elliptic Curves
Geometry, Algebra, Analysis
and Beyond
What is an Elliptic Curve?
An elliptic curve is a curve thats also naturally a group.
The group law on an elliptic curve can be described:
Geometrically using intersection theory
Algebraically using polynomial equations
Analytically using complex analytic functions
Elliptic curves appear in many diverse areas of
mathematics, ranging from number theory to complex
analysis, and from cryptography to mathematical
physics.
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The Equation of an Elliptic Curve
An Elliptic Curve is a curve given by an equation
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A Typical Elliptic Curve E
E : Y2 = X3 5X + 8
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The Group Law on an
Elliptic Curve
Adding Points P + Q on E
P+Q
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Doubling a Point P on E
Tangent Line to E at P R
2*P
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Vertical Lines and an Extra Point at Infinity
O
Q = P
E : Y2 = X3 5X + 8
The point P = (1,2) is on the curve E.
y 2 y1 3 x12 A
Let if P1 P2 and if P1 P2 .
x2 x1 2y 1
Then P1 P2 (2 x1 x2 , 3 2x1 x2 y1 ).
Quite a mess!!!!! But
Crucial Observation: If A and B are in a field K and
if P1 and P2 have coordinates in K,
then P1+ P2 and 2P1 have coordinates in K.
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The Group of Points on E with
Coordinates in a Field K
The elementary observation on the previous slide
leads to an important result:
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What Does E(R) Look Like?
We have seen one example of E(R). It is also possible for
E(R) to have two connected components.
E : Y2 = X3 9X
Example:The curve
E : Y2 = X3 5X + 8 modulo 37
contains the points
P = (6,3) and Q = (9,10).
Using the addition formulas, we can compute in E(F37):
2P = (35,11) 3P = (34,25) 4P = (8,6) 5P = (16,19)
P + Q = (11,10) 3P + 4Q = (31,28)
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Elliptic Curves and
Complex Analysis
x2/a2 + y2/b2 = 1
b a a2 1 b2 / a2 x 2
-a a
a a x
2 2
dx
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The Arc Length of an Ellipse
Let k2 = 1 b2/a2 and change variables x ax. Then the
arc length of an ellipse is
1 k x
2 2 1 1 k 2 x 2
a
1
a dx dx
1 1 x 2 1
(1 x )(1 k x )
2 2 2
1 k x
1
2 2
An Elliptic Curve!
Arc Length a dx
1 y
with y2 = (1 x2) (1 k2x2) = quartic in x.
w dx
The elliptic integral
x Ax B3
has an inverse
1+ 2
1 L
2
C (z),(z)
E(C)
L
Parallelogram with opposite
sides identified = a torus
E(C) =
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Elliptic Curves and
Number Theory
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E(Fp) : The Group of Points Modulo p
Number theorists also like to solve polynomial equations
modulo p.
This is much easier than finding solutions in Q, since
there are only finitely many solutions in the finite field Fp!
One expects E(Fp) to have approximately p+1 points.
A famous theorem of Hasse (later vastly generalized by
Weil and Deligne) quantifies this expectation.
Theorem (Hasse, 1922): An elliptic curve equation
E : y2 x3 + A x + B (modulo p)
has p+1+
solutions (x,y) mod p, where the error satisfies
2 p.
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Elliptic Curves and
Cryptography
The (Elliptic Curve) Discrete Log Problem
Let A be a group and let P and Q be known elements of A.
The Discrete Logarithm Problem (DLP) is to find an
integer m satisfying m summands
Q = P + P + + P = mP.
There are many cryptographic constructions based on
the difficulty of solving the DLP in various finite groups.
The first group used for this purpose (Diffie-Hellman
1976) was the multiplicative group Fp* in a finite field.
Koblitz and Miller (1985) independently suggested using
the group E(Fp) of points modulo p on an elliptic curve.
At this time, the best algorithms for solving the elliptic
curve discrete logarithm problem (ECDLP) are much
less efficient than the algorithms for solving DLP in Fp*
or for factoring large integers.
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Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange
Public Knowledge: A group E(Fp) and a point P of order n.
BOB ALICE
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The Elliptic Curve and the Pendulum
formula
d
2
2
k
2
dt
This leads to a simple harmonic
motion for the pendulum.
d k 2
sin())d (taking C 0)
cos(
2 2 dt
d
2k dt Now substitute x tan .
cos( ) 2
d dx dx
2 2 with y 1 x .
2 4
cos( ) 1 x 4 y
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How to Solve the Pendulum Equation
An Elliptic Integral!!!
An Elliptic Curve!!!
d dx dx
2 2 with y 1 x .
2 4
cos( ) 1 x 4 y
log x
dx dx
1 2ax bx
2 4 y
A genus whose logarithm is an elliptic integral is called an
Elliptic Genus.
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Elliptic Curves and
Modern Physics
Elliptic Curves and String Theory
In string theory, the notion of a point-like particle is replaced
by a curve-like string.
As a string moves through space-time, it traces out a surface.
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Elliptic Curves and Fermats Last Theorem
Gerhard Frey (and others) suggested using an hypothetical
solution (a,b,c) of Fermats equation to manufacture an
elliptic curve
Ea,b,c : y2 = x (x ap) (x + bp).
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Elliptic Curves and Modularity
There are many equivalent definitions, none of them
particularly intuitive. Heres one:
E is modular if it is parameterized by modular forms!
A modular form is a function f(t) with the property
at b
(ct d ) f (t )
2
f
ct d
a b
for all matrices SL2 (Z ) satisfying c 0 (mod N ).
c d
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References and Texts on Elliptic Curves
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References and Texts on Elliptic Curves
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The Ubiquity of
Elliptic Curves