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-2,9
-4,7
-6,4
-8,2
-9,9
-11,6
-13,4
67,0
59,0
51,0
43,0
35,0
26,9
18,9
The decree of scale interval between fixed points divided on equal parts.
Celsius degree equal temperature range between ice melting and water boiling
divided on 100 parts
0 C0 100 C0
00 F 273,150 K 373,150 K
0 0C 100 C0
The start point of Kelvin scale absolute absence of thermal energy (no atom
or molecular movement) 0 It is theoretical point and its doesn't reached.
The ice melting point (00C) is equal 273,150K, water boiling point (1000C) is
equal to 373,150K. So 1 Kelvin degree equal 1 Celsius degree . All
calculations in thermodynamic are performed in Kelvin Scale
17.8 0 C 0 0C 100 C0
5 9
T (C ) (T ( F ) 32) T ( F ) (T (C ) 32)
9 5
Heat sources.
+ 02 = 02 + Q
Q Q
One of the main heat sources as a chemical reactions (include fire) Chemical
retraction can have positive heat output (produce heat) or negative output (absorb
heat).
Infrared inspection can be used as general rule for temperature monitoring or even to
find areas with too slow or too fast speed of reaction process.
On thermal picture we can see the fire on candle..
Heat sources
Expansion / Compression
Compression and tension also lead to temperature
change (it is easy to detect in gaseous media).
Feeding
pipe Compres
sed Air
The heat from tension can be detected on compressors of any type, combustion
engines, etc.
On picture we can see the compressor cylinder. The feeding pipe is cold (cooled by
transporting air), the pipe with compressed air is hot (heated by compressed air).
To reduce temperature of compressed air heat exchanger frequently used.
Many imperfection can be detected (low compression etc.)
Change of aggregation state.
11,6
10,9
10,3
9,7
9,1
8,4
7,8
Q Q
P P
Q
Q
Any kind of friction also cause of micro plastic deformation and fraction.
Of cause it lead to heating. Any rolling or parts of bearing (slip or rolling) heat
generated during function.
It is in normal state for bearing.
If one of the bearing heated much more than other it can be that there is a
problem.
Heat sources
Currents flow
_
+ When current (I) flow through material
meets electrical resistance (R). It cause
heating of wire and energy loses (Q).
Q I R 2
1 Heat conduction.
2 Convection
3 Radiation
Heat conductivity direct mechanism of heat transfer by direct
exchange of heat between molecules and atoms by means of collision.
During contact particles with higher speed (more heat) share energy
with slow ones (cold) . Energy can spread feather. Conductivity heat
transfer described by Fourier's law.
T2
T1
qs (T1 T2 ) F /
Where:
Q Amount of transmitted energy; Heat conductivity of layer;
T1,T2 Temperatures on opposite sides. F Cross section.
Layer thickness
On infrared image is easy to see
that heat from bearing
spreading along the axis.
This example is very important
because we can see thermal
gradient. This phenomena give
us an ability
T2 split to separate
real heated areas from false
T1 indications.
Any heated area has an thermal
gradient around it, no sharp
lines splitting heat and cold
parts if one body is impossible
Convection most common heat exchange mechanism between solid
body and gaseous and liquid media.
Heat flow described by Newton law and measured in Watt per square
meter :
Q= cv(T1-T2)
Wind speed also has great influence on heat flow. For example wind
speed near of one wall of building can be different than near another
wall. It have to be taken into account.
Heat exchange near internal corner of the building usually much slower
then near flat wall (because of different wind speed). Wind speed also
can changed with the height.
Any body with temperature radiate a heat
Q2 energy as an electromagnetic waves. Hot
T1 Q1 T
2 bodies emit more heat than cold bodies.
Heat radiation depend on many factors and
will be described later.
It is obvious that tea pot with separated from heat by plate with low heat conductivity will heat
slowly than tea pot which separated from heat source by plate with high thermal conductivity
Change of inspection object heat resistance can be detected by thermal camera.
Changes in thermal conductivity often the sign if discontinuity or other defect. Degradation of
chimney, boilers and furnace lining can be detected by changing its heat conductivity.
.
Heating of composite
plate with delaminating
Areas with delaminating have less heat conductivity than other areas. With use of
heating from opposite side we can detect areas where heat flow is lower.
This areas have lesser temperature than other.
Examples of materials Heat conductivity
Heat
conductivity Material
Vt /(*)
389.6 Copper
74 Iron
1.28 Concrete
0.69 Slag Concrete
0.3-0.5 Wood
Metals have more heat conductive than non metals
Thermal capacity()
Thermal capacity () amount of thermal energy necessary to increase
temperature of one mass unit of substance (usually 1 kg) on 1 K.,
measured in (J/kg*).
The sample created from substance with low thermal capacity require less energy
to be heated.
Amount of energy to heat sample can be calculated by multiplying of sample
substance heat capacity on its weight.
Thermal capacity()
Difference in heat capacity can be used for inspection. For example areas inside
honeycombs flaps can be detected . The surface of flaps heated, temperature areas
without entrapped water rises fast, but in areas with entrapped moisture, the
temperature rise much slower because water has high heat capacity
Heat capacity of some types of materials
Heat capacity
Material
KJ/kg*
0,38 Copper
0,46 Steel
1 Concrete
2,7 Wood
4,28 Water
Water Is one with highest thermal capacity which can be meet often.
Temperatures conductivity
Resistive thermometry;
Thermo-electric thermometry;
For example
Wolfram Rhenium couple 0 2500 C
Piston
P
Vapors
3
2
P 1 Scale
Liquid String
Equipments principle the difference of gas pressure or its vapors from
temperature, -150 6000.
With change of liquid saturated vapors pressure. The force applied to
piston change. The spring expand or tense to compensate difference in
applied force. Arrow change its position
Condensation thermometry widely used in refrigerators.
Bimetallic thermometer consist of two metal strips with
different thermal expansion coefficient.
When its heated one strip become longer than another and
strip bends in direction of shorter plate.
Bimetallic thermometers widely used for home use
temperature measure unit with an arrow like indication
system or for industrial automatic as thermal switchers.
Liquid crystals can change color in dependency from temperature. After
infrared camera become cheap and available it was widely used. Liquid
crystals have some adventures and used our days over infrared cameras.
First of all measurement is contact (advantage will be described further)
and it can work in infrared non transparent media. For example in water.
Pyrometry based on measurement of heated body thermal
radiation : 200 6000. The main types of equipment Infrared
camera and Pyrometer.
Energy converts to each other by sinus law. Electrical and magnetic fields
vectors are perpendicular to direction of wave spreading this type of waves
called transversal waves. Electromagnetic waves spread with speed of light
(visible light is a kind of electromagnetic wave). Time of full transformation of
energy from electric to magnetic and back called oscillation period (T)
measured in seconds. Wavelength path which wave travel for 1 oscillation
period () measured in meters or micro meters.
Wavelength
C T
Spreading Direction C
n
- wavelength, n frequency
period , - speed of light
E-energy of photon
E
E h /
Wavelength
h Planks constant
Electromagnetic spectrum
X ray radiation
Ultra
Radio waves
Visible Infrared
violet light radiation
Optical range
Visible light is only a part of electromagnetic spectrum. The higher energy has
Gamma radiation and X-ray. The lesser is radio waves. The infrared spectra located
in area near from visible spectra, but have longer wavelength. Ultraviolet spectra
shorter wavelength. Infrared, Visible and Ultraviolent specters together are together
called optical range.
Infrared spectra sub ranges.
Wave length (mkm) Name of range
0.73-1.4 (NIR) Near infrared radiation
1.4-3 (SWIR) Short wave length infrared radiation
2 5 k 4
2 3 5,76 108
15c h
T
800
Heat
400
t
If we put metal sample into induction furnace heating chamber and turn of light, it
become dark inside. When we start heating we can se how sample begin to glow.
At low temperature it will be dark red, and become more bright and tend to yellow
color with increasing of temperature.
Ideal black body.
200
1 mkm 10 mkm
10 m 0,5m
T 300K T 6000K
0.8 0.8
During the experiment with induction furnace we remember that we can see red glowing
when temperature reaches 400 0 C degree.
Question: Does visual light radiation exist at temperature 100 0 C? The answer give us Planks
distribution. Of course visible light radiation exist even in case of room temperature, but it is
much lesser than our eyes detection threshold.
When temperature reaches 400 0 C the visible light radiation in red color (the longest
wavelength) override detection threshold and wee can see it. But when if we make simple
calculation (with using of Wein's low ) the wavelength with maximal radiated power is 8 mkm
so the most part of radiated energy lies in infrared spectra.
1. Is there an ultraviolet radiation in regular light bulb radiation spectra ?
A) No its emit only Visible light.
B) Yes main part of lamp radiation is in UV range
C) Yes its exist but it is very small part.
D) Yes its exist and 1/3 of all lamp energy radiate in UV spectra.
For example for non transparent body, reflection coefficient = 0.3 what
will bi absorption coefficient (). Non transparent medias has transparency
coefficient = 0.
=
For practical use we have to know that emission coefficient is equal to
absorption coefficient from the same angle of view.
Radiation of grey bodies
3.E+08
Q E=1
E = 0,7
2.E+08
1.E+08
0.E+00
0 5 10 15 20
Grey bodies have same spectral distribution like the black bodies. But lower integral
radiation power. The temperature of black body with same Integral radiated energy
as measured body called radiated temperature.
What infrared camera measure ?
Q
Infrared camera measure integral radiation from sample (radiated temperature) and
calculate temperature based on this measurement.
The simplified recount formula looks like
Q
E = 1.
Q
T 4
K
Absolutely true - If we input in camera wrong infrared camera will return false result.
Example of object with infrared picture
86,7
C
78,6
70,5
62,3
54,2
46,0
37,9
29,7
21,6
Metallic polished cup filled with hot water. Water in cup looks hot (because it has good emission
coefficient). The cup itself looks cold (because it has low emission coefficient and it radiation
temperature is low )
How to measure temperature ?
In this case it is a good question. Because we need to take into account emission
coefficient. Where we can take it? In literature there are data about emission coefficient of
different materials.
For example you can see table. In table we can see copper tarnished and copper oxidized.
It is very difficult to realize what is the state of oxidation and what coefficient we have to
use. A lot of materials are not presented in books for example stoneware. A lot of paints has
unpredictable emission coefficients. And we have to use some procedure to define it.
We have to remember that only small surface layer (like paint or black tape) define
emission coefficients.
xC xB
Trad
34 89
Hot cup infrared picture
Tcont
273 34
Looks like its work ! Even we can use this
0,84
formula on our hot cap example (contact
measured temperature was 95 0C).
273 89 But cup looks shiny, in tables polished
steel has about of 0.1. What is the reason?
Measure of the same cup with cold water
If we fill cup with cold water we got next
picture. Its look strange. Areas with low
emission coefficient are hot, water is cold and
areas with high emission coefficient also cold.
What is the reason ?
400 t
When temperature increase up to 400 C0 Celsius the emission
coefficient of most bodies highly increase.
At high temperatures we can count radiation coefficient close to 1
Angle of view influence ()
Angle of view one of the most
important factors.
m
2,5 8
,E
m
2,5 8
E
Thermal picture Thermal camera Furnace with glass door
If we try to use wide range (3-5 mkm) infrared camera to measure temperature of
heated part behind glass the detector of infrared camera receive energy from
heated part in short wave length range (where glass in transparent).
An energy from the glass in longer wavelength range.
Because thermal camera measure the sum of all received energy it is impossible
to spit this signals.
High pass filter
m
E
Furnace with glass door
Thermal picture
Low pass filter
m
E
Furnace with glass door
Thermal picture
Short gap filter
m
E
Boiler
0.8T x 4 4
Infrared camera
Atmosphere
Software
Inspection
result
Inspection
tehnology
Inspection sketch include a lot of details. All shown factors can affect
result of inspection.
It is sad to inform but many scientific
researches peoples use to kill other
peoples. In 1942 German tanks Tiger
already has an infrared systems of night
vision. A lot of night vision aims for
sniper rifles was produced in same year,.
Incoming infrared radiation fall into optical system, which filter it and focus
passed radiation on detector. Detector convert it to electrical signal and
transmit electrical signal to processing block. Processing block calculate the
temperature in accordance to electrical signal, calibrations and setup. Infrared
picture sanded to screen to operator.
Of course all elements of infrared cameras changing in time and the
infrared camera structure and abilities also changing.
Optical system collect and
focusing incoming heat radiation on
detector.
Field of view It has next key parameters:
- Field of view: solid angle (usually
characterized by angles in x and y
direction). It shows the angle in which
thermal camera collect heat radiation
Spectral range - Spectral range wavelength range in
which optical system is transparent and
provide correct focusing of radiation on
detector.
- Aperture (opening) ratio: quality of
Aperture ratio optical system it show how much heat
radiation collect the optical system..
Atmosphere transparency
100
windows
Absorption of radiation by
50
atmosphere
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Wave length m
During designing of infrared camera optical system atmosphere
properties have to be taken into account. On shown graph we can see
atmosphere transparency depending on wavelength. Transparency
window 2-3 mkm usually not used.
Most of produced equipment use two wavelength range:
1-st Transparency window 3-5 m SWIR .
2-nd Transparency window 8-14 m LWIR
Which equipment to choose ?
3.E+08 Q
T = 4000C
E = 200C
2.E+08
1.E+08
0.E+00
0 5 8 10 14 15 20
The best way to perform inspection - choose camera with wavelength
work range covering wavelength range of maximal heat radiation of
body. For building with T=0 C0 the best work range is LWIR and SWIR
will be best for metallurgy. Sometimes nongreay bodies can force us ti
use other wavelength spectra.
Materials for lens.
Wavelength (mkm) Materials
0.76-1.5 Glass, mirrors.
1.5-5.5 Glass, mirrors.
5.6-25 Germanium, mirrors.
25-100 Germanium, mirrors.
d d
F F
Lenses Mirrors
D B`
'
B F
M
B D
The image scale (M) ratio object projection size (B) (on film or sensitive matrix)
to real object size in plane perpendicular to camera axis..
Aperture ratio
Geometrical aperture ratio show how efficient object glass are. Aperture ratio has
an influence on equipment sensitivity. The higher aperture ratio more sensible is
equipment.
d 2
J 2
4f
D Receiving lens diameter.
F focal distance.
The dependency between sensitivity and aperture ratio is not linear and there is
a limit after reaching certain aperture ratio its increasing not give a valuable effect.
But if you looking at different infrared cameras you can see that cheap cameras has
small receiving lens and aperture ratio. The equipment with high price has large
receiving lenses.
Regardless of low performance and weight infrared camera
1st generation of receive wild area of application. It gives an
ability to receive temperature distribution on surface of
object much faster then any other method. The main
application area of 1st generation infrared camera was
medicine.
5 4 3 2
Scanning spot are on inspection object which projected to detector in single
moment of time. The instant view angle and distance to inspection object define the
spatial resolution of infrared camera.
Inspection object with heated spot Thermal camera screen
During inspection scan system move scan area across surface of inspection
object.
If cold (blue area) is projected to sensor the result on equipment screen cold spot
will be drawn. If hot area will be projector to sensor the hot point will be drawn, if
cold and hot area projected to sensor partially the result drown on screen will
depend relation of surface of hot and cold areas. It is very important for properly
choosing of equipment and inspection technology.
The area which projected in sensor in called instantaneous point of view (IPOV)
Inspection object with heated spot Thermal camera screen
3 2 1
PbSe (77 K)
11
10 InSb (77 K)
Ge: Ga (4 K)
HgCdTe
10
10
GaAs QWIP (77K)
Ge
9 Bolometer
10
1 10 100 1000
Wavelength
For first cameras detectors were produced from rare metals (Indium,
selenium) with photo effect ability ( it is able to lose electrons under
influence of radiation and produce electrical current) They are very
sensible, but have not linearly dependency of output signal from
wavelength.
Nowadays a bolometric detectors are used.
They have low sensitivity but its output signal not depend on wavelength.
Infrared cameras of second generation use linear detector. It was a big step
forward. This give an ability to remove one scanning mirror. The weight of equipment
reduced the operation speed increase. Portable equipment was produced.
In addition to this advantages linear scanner can be used for inspection of objects
moving with constant speed. For example rolling steel. The product movement was
used instead of scanning mirror. Time to form picture was reduced to ( 0.5 -0.1 sec.).
Cooling with liquid nitrogen was replaced with Sterling machine.
Appearance of 2nd generation infrared camera widely increase infrared
inspection application field like the electrical power lines now become inspection
objects
()
Nowadays most on Infrared NDT equipment in use are cameras of 3rd generation..
Main feature of 3rd generation camera absence of scanning system.
The thermal radiation projected by lens directly on 2 dimensional detector
3rd generation cameras compact and lightweight has high performance (some can take
more than 100 frames per second), easy in use and exploitation, relatively cheap.
Its development give an ability to use infrared inspection practically everywhere.
If cooling required it is achieved by Peltier element (semiconductor cooler without moving
parts)
Bolometer
The oldest pyrometer measurement unit
was a Unit consisted from spherical mirror
and a small wax tank with small hole in
focus of mirror. The hotter object was the
faster wax melt. Heat flow measured in
wax drop per minute.
V
Modern bolometer
Measurement Modern bloomers wire balls a flat and drowned by
gold or platinum or germanium or siliceous
background. Each detector has a balance the same
Ball but located on opposite-shadow side of
background plate.
R R
Resistance of detector and balance is compared
with using of bridge circuit .
Any way it is impossible to produce all balls the
U same. To setup 0 point calibration screen used.
Detector
Balance
Detetor
temperature but it measure it integrally on some
area (depend in distance) and not give a
temperature distribution.
- Active inspection
- Passive inspection
Passive inspection designed to measure temperature and
thermal fields of inspection body appeared as a result of its normal
functioning.
Main targets of passive inspection buildings, electrical
equipment, machinery.
IO IO
T
1
2
0
1
2 t
t1 t2
t sek
The heat response from inclusion reveal on surface with delay. The deeper
under surface inclusion located the more time delay the larger is a time delay.
The higher is heat conductivity the less is time delay. On picture we can see that
time response from inclusion 1 revealed after t1 time and from inclusion 2 after
rime t2.
It is possible to evaluate depth of delimitation location by time delay.
Heat conductivity modeling
Sample with delaminating Time delay modeling
modeling for sample with 2 delimitations
Time of pulse 1 ms power 30 J/m2 Time of use 10-50 s power Time of use 1-1000 s
uniformity of distribution 10 % 5000 J/m2s power 2000 J/m2s
(are 0.2x02 m). uniformity of distribution uniformity of
25 % (area 0.5x05 m) distribution 300 % (area
Give high concentrated Heat pulse. 0.5x05 m)
Can be used for high resolution Frequently used Have Have non uniform heat
inspection or inclusion depth enough good heat distribution usually not
measurement distribution to find applicable for IR NDT
inclusions
Regardless of used equipment, all processing software has the equal
basic functions. The best way to realize how does it works try to look
on processing examples.
Set up scale range
In case we use
automatic scale
temperature range
choosing from the
highest temperature to
lowest temperature in
frame.
Many details on IR
image can be unseen.
Necessary to choose
thermal range as more
close to expecting
temperature of
inspection object.
Auto Manual
Point Tool
a b
Emissivity 0,95 0,95
T 67 31
a b
Emissivity 0,95 0,95
T max 83 36
T min 22 22
med. 37 26
Tool Area give us much more information. It gives the max and min
temperature in area and medium temperature. The emissivity also can be
defined.
If we analyze same infrared picture with using Area tool we find that T
max in joint 83 0. Difference of 16 degree in compare with Point tool.
The reason is that it is hard to find hottest point manually.
+
Ref
+
A +6 (ref)
The reflections one of the serious problem of infrared inspection. The reflection often
looks like the indications from imperfections. On picture we can see reflection of lamps in
water filets.
The best way to avoid reflection is to remove all heated devices and turn off the light.
But it is not always possible.
Often reflections can be defined because of sharp edged without thermal gradient, but
it not always work.
False indication
Reflection
Ways to split reflections from
imperfections
Reflection
imperfection imperfection
Inspection
Thermal picture
scheme sketch
One more way to separate reflection from imperfection changing inspection angle
and point.
If we change our position during inspection the radiation from external heat source
can be avoided
1. In very cold winter (temperature is higher then IR camera low limit)
you perform inspection of building and see the hotter are in center of
camera screen. You move camera to other place hot area follow with
movement of camera and stay in center?
A) Camera is broken.
B) Camera have to be recalibrated
C) Hot area it is you reflection.
D) No right answer.
A) approximately 2mm.
B) approximately 20 mm.
C) Approximately 4mm.
D) Approximately 10 mm.
5. What is the instantaneous view angel of infrared camera with lens
angle 25x25 0 and matrix 640x640 px ?
A) 68 mrad.
B) 0,039 rad
C) 0,064 rad.
D) 0.68 mrad.
A) Passive.
B) Active 1 side
C) Active 2 side.
D) B or C.