3.

3: Rational Functions and Their Graphs

Rational Functions
Rational functions are quotients of polynomial functions. This means that
rational functions can be expressed as
p( x)
f ( x)
q( x)
where p(x) and q(x) are polynomial functions and q(x) 0. The domain of a
rational function is the set of all real numbers except the x-values that make the
denominator zero. For example, the domain of the rational function
This is p(x).
x2 7x 9
f ( x)
x( x 2)( x 5)
This is q(x).
is the set of all real numbers except 0, 2, and -5.
 3.3: Rational Functions and Their Graphs

EXAMPLE: Finding the Domain of a

Rational Function
Find the domain of each rational function.
x2 9 x x3
a. f ( x) b. g ( x) 2 c. h( x)
x 3 x 9 x2 9

Solution Rational functions contain division. Because division by 0 is

undefined, we must exclude from the domain of each function values of x that
cause the polynomial function in the denominator to be 0.

a. The denominator of f ( x) x 2
9 is 0 if x = 3. Thus, x cannot equal 3.
x3
The domain of f consists of all real numbers except 3, written {x |x 3}.

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 3.3: Rational Functions and Their Graphs

EXAMPLE: Finding the Domain of a

Rational Function
Find the domain of each rational function.
x2 9 x x3
a. f ( x) b. g ( x) 2 c. h( x)
x 3 x 9 x2 9

Solution Rational functions contain division. Because division by 0 is

undefined, we must exclude from the domain of each function values of x that
cause the polynomial function in the denominator to be 0.

b. The denominator of g ( x) x is 0 if x = 3 or x 3. Thus, the

x2 9
domain of g consists of all real numbers except 3 and 3, written {x | x
{x | x 3, x 3}.

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 3.3: Rational Functions and Their Graphs

EXAMPLE: Finding the Domain of a

Rational Function
Find the domain of each rational function.
x2 9 x x3
a. f ( x) b. g ( x) 2 c. h( x)
x 3 x 9 x2 9

Solution Rational functions contain division. Because division by 0 is

undefined, we must exclude from the domain of each function values of x that
cause the polynomial function in the denominator to be 0.

c. No real numbers cause the denominator of h( x) x2 3 to equal zero.

x 9
The domain of h consists of all real numbers.
 3.3: Rational Functions and Their Graphs

Rational Functions
Unlike the graph of a polynomial function, the graph of the reciprocal function
has a break in it and is composed of two distinct branches. We use a special
arrow notation to describe this situation symbolically:

Arrow Notation
Symbol Meaning
x a x approaches a from the right.
x a x approaches a from the left.
x x approaches infinity; that is, x increases without bound.
x x approaches negative infinity; that is, x decreases without
bound.
 3.3: Rational Functions and Their Graphs

Vertical Asymptotes of Rational Functions

Definition of a Vertical Asymptote
The line x a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function f if f(x)
increases or decreases without bound as x approaches a.
f (x) as x a f (x) as x a
y y

f
x x
a a

x=a x=a

Thus, f (x) or f(x) as x approaches a from either the left or the

right.
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 3.3: Rational Functions and Their Graphs

Vertical Asymptotes of Rational Functions

Definition of a Vertical Asymptote
The line x a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function f if f(x)
increases or decreases without bound as x approaches a.
f (x) as x a f (x) as x a
y y

x=a x=a

x x
a a
f
f

Thus, f(x) or f(x) as x approaches a from either the left or the

right.
 3.3: Rational Functions and Their Graphs

Vertical Asymptotes of Rational Functions

If the graph of a rational function has vertical asymptotes, they can be located
by using the following theorem.

Locating Vertical Asymptotes

If f ( x) p( x) is a rational function in which p(x) and q(x) have no common
q( x)
factors and a is a zero of q(x), the denominator, then x a is a vertical
asymptote of the graph of f.
 Finding Vertical Asymptotes
Example 1
2 x 2 10 x 12
If f x
x2 9
2 x 10 x 12 x 32 x 4
2

x 3x 3
First simplify the
x 9
2
function. Factor
2x 4
both numerator
and denominator x 3
and cancel any
common factors.
The asymptote(s) occur where the
simplified denominator equals 0.
x 3 0
The vertical line x=3 is the only vertical x3
asymptote for this function.

As the input value x to this function gets

closer and closer to 3 the function itself
looks more and more like the vertical line
x=3.
Graph of Example 1
The vertical dotted line at
x = 3 is the vertical
asymptote
 Finding Vertical Asymptotes
Example 2
x5
If g x 2
x x6
x 5 x 5
Factor both the
numerator and x x 6 x 2x 3
2

denominator and cancel

any common factors.
In this case there are no
common factors to
cancel.
The denominator equals zero whenever either
x20
x 2
or
x 3 0
x3
This function has two vertical asymptotes, one at
x = -2 and the other at x = 3
Graph of Example 2
The two vertical
dotted lines at
x = -2 and x = 3 are
the vertical
asymptotes
 3.3: Rational Functions and Their Graphs

Horizontal Asymptotes of Rational Functions

A rational function may have several vertical asymptotes, but it can have at
most one horizontal asymptote.

Definition of a Horizontal Asymptote

The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of a function f if f(x)
approaches b as x increases or decreases without bound.
y y y
y=b y=b
f
f
f
x y=b x
x

f(x) b as x f(x) b as x f (x) b as x

 3.3: Rational Functions and Their Graphs

Horizontal Asymptotes of Rational Functions

If the graph of a rational function has a horizontal asymptote, it can be located
by using the following theorem.

Locating Horizontal Asymptotes

Let f be the rational function given by

an x n an 1x n 1 a1x a0
f ( x) m 1
, an 0, bm 0
bm x bm 1x b1x b0
m

The degree of the numerator is n. The degree of the denominator is m.

1. If n < m, the x-axis is the horizontal asymptote of the graph of f.
2. If n m, the line y an
bm is the horizontal asymptote of the graph of f.
3. If n = m + 1, the quotient is in the form ax + b , and the line y = ax + b is
called an oblique (or slant) asymptote.
4. If n > m + 1, the graph of f has neither a horizontal asymptote or an
oblique asymptote.
 Finding Horizontal Asymptotes
Example 3
x 3x 5
2
If f x 3
x 27

then there is a horizontal asymptote at the line y=0

because the degree of the numerator (2) is less than the
degree of the denominator (3). This means that as x
gets larger and larger in both the positive and negative
directions (x and x -)
the function itself looks more and more like the
horizontal line y = 0
Graph of Example 3
The horizontal line
y = 0 is the
horizontal
asymptote.
 Finding Horizontal Asymptotes
Example 4
6 x 3x 5
2

If g x 2
5x 7 x 9

then because the degree of the numerator (2) is equal

to the degree of the denominator (2) there is a
horizontal asymptote at the line y=6/5. Note, 6 is
the leading coefficient of the numerator and 5 is the
leading coefficient of the denominator. As x and
as x- g(x) looks more and more like the line
y=6/5
Graph of Example 4
The horizontal dotted
line at y = 6/5 is the
horizontal asymptote.
 3.3: Rational Functions and Their Graphs

Strategy for Graphing a Rational Function

Suppose that
p( x)
f ( x)
q( x)
where p(x) and q(x) are polynomial functions with no common factors.
1. Determine whether the graph of f has symmetry.
f (x) f (x): y-axis symmetry
f (x) f (x): origin symmetry
2. Find the y-intercept (if there is one) by evaluating f (0).
3. Find the x-intercepts (if there are any) by solving the equation p(x) 0.
4. Find any vertical asymptote(s) by solving the equation q (x) 0.
5. Find the horizontal asymptote (if there is one) using the rule for determining the
horizontal asymptote of a rational function.
6. Plot at least one point between and beyond each x-intercept and vertical asymptote.
7. Use the information obtained previously to graph the function between and beyond
the vertical asymptotes.
 3.3: Rational Functions and Their Graphs

EXAMPLE: Graphing a Rational Function

3x 2
Graph: f ( x) 2 .
x 4
Solution
3 x2 3x 2
Step 1 Determine symmetry: f(x) 2 f(x):
x 4
2
x 4
Symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
3 02 0
Step 2 Find the y-intercept: f(0) 2 0: y-intercept is 0.
0 4 4
Step 3 Find the x-intercept: 3x2 0, so x 0: x-intercept is 0.
Step 4 Find the vertical asymptotes: Set q(x) 0.
x2 4 0 Set the denominator equal to zero.
x2 4
x 2
Vertical asymptotes: x 2 and x 2.
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 3.4: Rational Functions and Their Graphs

EXAMPLE: Graphing a Rational Function

3x 2
Graph: f ( x) 2 .
x 4
Solution
Step 5 Find the horizontal asymptote: y 3/1 3.
Step 6 Plot points between and beyond the
x-intercept and the vertical asymptotes. With 7

an x-intercept at 0 and vertical asymptotes at x

6

5
2 and x 2, we evaluate the function at 3, 1, 4

1, 3, and 4. 3

Horizontal 2 x-intercept and

x 3 1 1 3 4 asymptote: y = 3 1 y-intercept
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
3x 2 27 27 Vertical
-1
Vertical
f(x) 2 1 1 4 -2
x 4 5 5 asymptote: x = -2 -3 asymptote: x = 2
The figure shows these points, the y-intercept,
the x-intercept, and the asymptotes.
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 3.4: Rational Functions and Their Graphs

EXAMPLE: Graphing a Rational Function

3x 2
Graph: f ( x) 2 .
x 4
Solution
Step 7 Graph the function. The graph of f(x) is shown in the figure. The y-
axis symmetry is now obvious.

7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

Horizontal 2 x-intercept and y=3 2

asymptote: y = 3 1 y-intercept 1

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1
Vertical Vertical x=2
asymptote: x = -2
-2
asymptote: x = 2 x = -2 -2
-3 -3
 3.3: Rational Functions and Their Graphs

EXAMPLE: Finding the Slant Asymptote

of a Rational Function
x 2 4x 5
Find the slant asymptotes of f(x) .
x3
Solution Because the degree of the numerator, 2, is exactly one more than
the degree of the denominator, 1, the graph of f has a slant asymptote. To find
the equation of the slant asymptote, divide x 3 into x2 4x 5:

23 1 4 5 1x 1
8
1 3 3 x3
1 1 8 x3 x 2 4x 5

Remainder

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 3.3: Properties of Rational Function and Their Graphs

EXAMPLE: Finding the Slant Asymptote

of a Rational Function
x 2 4x 5
Find the slant asymptotes of f(x) .
x3
Solution The equation of the slant asymptote is y x 1. Using our strategy
for graphing rational functions, the graph of f(x) x 2
4x 5 is shown.
x3
7

4 Slant asymptote:
3 y=x-1
2
1

-2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-1

-2 Vertical asymptote:
-3
x=3