Outline:

Nature, scope and utility of Sociology, relation between Sociology and society.
Essential elements of society, bio-social and socio-cultural systems. Rural and
urban communities and their characteristics. Origin, growth and influence of
cities. Definition of urbanization patterns of life and influence of
urbanization on rural life, urbanization process in India. Migration and its
impact on urbanization, social problems of urbanization problems relating
to public health, public transport and public housing, sociological
understanding of slums. Social surveys and Social research principles of
social research, scope of research, units of study, choice of research topics,
sources of information, literature review official and unofficial documents,
library references, publication etc., Field survey adoption of suitable
techniques in field research viz., Questionnaires, interview, case study etc.,
analysis and classification of data.
 What Is Sociology?
Sociology: The systematic study of the
relationship between the individual and
society and of the consequences of
different types of relationships.

2
 What Is Sociology?
Sociology Focuses on:
How social relationships influence peoples
attitudes and behavior
How major social institutions affect us
How we affect other individuals, groups, and
organizations

3
 Society Is.
A society is a group of people who share a culture and live more
or less together. They have a set of institutions which provide
what they need to meet their physical, social, and psychological
needs and which maintain order and the values of the culture.

Social structures are the more or less stable patterns of peoples

interactions and relationships.

Institutions are the principal social structures that organize,

direct, and execute the essential tasks of living. Societies
represent the most comprehensive and complex type of social
structure in todays world.

Some institutions are: Family, Medical, educational, economic,

religious, legal and political systems
4
 Society Is Studied By
@ Using Scientific methods to Study
@ Variations in social structures
@ Variations in social Institutions
@ How they are held together
@ How they change
@ How they effect the people who interact in
them
@ This is what makes up sociology

5
 Culture
Culture refers to the beliefs, values, behavior and
material objects that, together, form a people's way
of life.
Culture determines how we view the world
around us
Culture includes the traditions we inherit and pass on
to the next generation
Culture: totality of our shared language, knowledge,
material objects, and behavior

6
 Culture and Society
Society: the structure of relationships within which culture
is created and shared through regularized patterns of social
interaction
Society provides the context within which our
relationships with the external world develop
How we structure society constrains the kind of culture
we construct
Cultural preferences vary across societies

7
 Components of Culture
All cultures have five common components:
symbols,
language,
values and beliefs,
norms, and
material culture, including technology.
Symbols are defined as anything that carries a particular meaning
recognized by people who share culture. The meaning of the same
symbols varies from society to society, within a single society, and over
time.

8
 Social and Cultural Norms

Cultures and societies set up norms which are the rules and
expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its
members.
Norms can be either proscriptive or prescriptive.
- Formal norms express values as laws and regulations whose violation is
strictly punished
- Informal norms are those norms which are generally understood but
which may loosely defined
- Mores are widely observed and have great moral/social significance.
- Folkways are norms that govern everyday behaviors

9
 The Origins of Sociology
Three major social changes during the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries are important to the development of
sociology.
The rise of a factory-based industrial economy.
The emergence of great cities in Europe.
Political changes, including a rising concern with individual
liberty and rights.
The French Revolution symbolized this dramatic
break with political and social tradition.

10
 Founders of Sociology
Aguste Comte
System of Positive Polity, or Treatise on Sociology, Instituting the
Religion of Humanity.
Emile Durkheim
The Division of Labor in Society
The Elementary Forms of Religious Life
Suicide
Karl Marx
Das Kapital
Max Weber
The Protestant Ethic and the Rise of Capitalism
The Sociology of Religion
The theory of Social and Economic organization

11
 Social Interaction
Social interaction: the ways in which people respond
to one another
How we interact with people is shaped by our
perception of their position relative to our own
Meanings we ascribe to others actions reflect norms
and values of the dominant culture
Ability to define social reality reflects a groups power
within a society

12
 Types of Groups
Primarya small group, based on face to face
contact with strong ties between all members.
Secondary formal, relatively distant ties
between members

13
Comparison of Primary and Secondary
Groups

14
 Institutions
Social institutions are: Family, Medical,
educational, economic, religious, legal and
political systems.

Generic definition: organized pattern of beliefs

and behavior centered on basic social needs

15
BIO/PSYCHO/SOCIAL/SPIRITUAL
bio (biology) psycho
refers to the (psychology)
physical and refers to the
medical aspects emotional
of ourselves aspects of our
lives

social refers to socio- spiritual refers to

cultural, socio- the way people find
political, and socio- meaning in their
economic issues lives

4
 The Sociocultural Approach
Sociocultural approach - emphasis on larger
social contexts in which a person lives
(individuals marriage or family, socioeconomic
status, ethnicity, gender, culture)

Frequency and intensity of psychological

disorders varies across cultures and depends on
social, economic, technological, and religious
aspects
2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
McGraw-Hill 14-17
All rights reserved.
 An Interactionist Approach:
Biopsychosocial
Biopsychosocial approach - abnormal
behavior can be influenced by:
biological factors (such as brain processes and
heredity)
psychological factors (such as distorted thoughts
or low self-esteem)
sociocultural factors (such as ineffective family
functioning or poverty)

2006 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

McGraw-Hill 14-18
All rights reserved.
Theoretical Perspectives on the Family
Family ecology
Family development
Structure-functionalism
Interactionist perspective
Theoretical Perspectives on the Family

Family Ecology Perspective

The ecological context of the family
Theme affects family life and childrens
outcomes.
Natural physical-biological
Key environment; Human-built
Concepts environment; Social-cultural
environment
Current
Family policy; Neighborhood effects
Research
Theoretical Perspectives on the Family

Family Development Perspective

Families experience predictable
Theme
changes over time.
Key Family life cycle; Developmental
Concepts tasks
Current
Transition to adulthood
Research
Theoretical Perspectives on the Family

Structure-Functional Perspective
The family performs essential
Theme
functions for society.
Key Social institution; Family structure;
Concepts Family functions
Current Cross-cultural and historical
Research comparisons
Family Ecology Perspective
 Sociological Research Topics
Sociologists:
Study the influence that society has on peoples
attitudes and behavior
Seek to understand ways in which people interact
and shape society

24
 Methods of collecting data
Sociologists use the following methods
Surveys
Experiments
Participant observations
Secondary Analysis

25
 Survey Research
A survey is a research method in which subjects respond to a series of
statements or questions in a questionnaire or an interview..
-Surveys are directed at populations, the people who are the focus of
research.
- Usually we study a sample, a part of a population that represents the
whole. Random sampling is commonly used to be sure that the
sample is actually representative of the entire population.
- Surveys may involve questionnaires, a series of written questions a
researcher presents to subjects.
- Questionnaires may be closed-ended or open-ended.
- Surveys may also take the form of interviews, a series of questions
administered in person by a researcher to respondents.
This technique uses statistical methods to analyze data

26
 Steps in the conduct of Scientific
Sociological Research
1. Select a topic guided by sociological perspective and curiosity.
Frequently guided by the source of funding for the research.
2. Define the problem in considerable detail, specifying exactly what you
want to learn.
3. Review the literature to use what is already known about the topic. As
a guide, and to generate ideas as to what questions to ask.
4. Formulate your hypothesis, describing how you expect your variables
to be related.
5. Choose a research method, which we will discuss in a few minutes.
6. Collect your data paying attention to the validity.
7. Analyze your data.
8. Disseminate by publishing or speaking at professional meetings, your
findings.

27
The Scientific Method

28
 Steps in the Research
Process
Formulating the Hypothesis
Hypothesis: testable statement about
relationship between two or more variables
Variable: measurable trait or characteristic
subject to change under different conditions
Independent variable: variable hypothesized to
cause or influence another
Dependent variable: variable subject to the
influence of another variable

29
Population, Urbanization, and
Ecology
The study of Population growth and the
development of Cities and their
relationship with the environment

30
 Demographic Theories
1. Thomas Malthus held that population increases more quickly than food
supply.
2. Karl Marx insisted that an excess of population is related to the
availability of employment opportunities, not to a fixed supply of food.
3. Neo-Malthusians agree with many of Malthus ideas, but favor
contraception for population control.
4. Demographic transition theory holds that the process of modernization is
associated with three stages in population change:
1. high potential growth, transitional growth, and population stability.
Fertility reduction policies are based on
1. family planning,
2. a developmentalist strategy
3. or a societalist perspective.

31
 Population
Demography is the science dealing with the size,
distribution, composition, and changes in
population. All population change within a
society can be reduced to three factors:
the birth rate,
the death rate, and
the migration rate into or out of the society.

32
 Population Terms
Fertility is the incidence of childbearing in a societys population.
1. Fecundity refers to the maximum potential childbearing ability of the
women of a society. It is sharply reduced in practice by cultural norms,
finances, and personal choice.
2. Demographers measure fertility using the crude birth rate, or the
number of live births in a given year for every thousand people in a
population.
Mortality is the incidence of death in a societys population.
1. Demographers measure mortality using the crude death rate, or the
number of deaths in a given year for every thousand people in a
population.
2. The infant mortality rate is the number of deaths among infants
under one year of age for every thousand live births in a given year.
3. Life expectancy is the average life span of a societys population.

33
Birth, Death and life Expectancy Rates
Around the World

34
 Population Terms
Migration is the movement of people into and out of a specified territory.
1. It may be voluntary or involuntary. Voluntary migration may be
explained by push and pull factors.
2. Movement into a territory is termed immigration and is measured by
the in-migration rate, the number of people entering an area for every
thousand people in the population.
3. Movement out of a territory is termed emigration and is measured
by the out-migration rate, the number of people leaving an area for every
thousand people in the population.
4. The net migration rate is the difference between the in-migration rate
and the out-migration rate.

35
 Population Terms
The population growth rate is computed by subtracting the
crude death rate from the crude birth rate. It is relatively low
in the industrialized nations and quite high in the poor
countries.
Doubling time is another way of expressing a societys
growth rate.
Population composition.
The sex ratio is the number of males for every hundred females in a given
population. Sex ratios are usually below 100, because, on average, women
outlive men.
.An age-sex pyramid is a graphic representation of the age
and sex of a population

36
An Age-Sex Pyramid

37
 Population Theories
History and Theory of Population Growth.
The growth rate began to increase around 1750 and is presently extremely
rapid.

.Malthusian theory.
Malthus believed that population increased geometrically, while
food could only increase arithmetically, leading to catastrophic
starvation.
Only 3 ways to avoid this outcome
Disease
Famine
War
Humanity has avoided this outcome by learning to
produce more food .. A technological solution to a
biological problem

38
Population Growth 1700-2100

39
 Population Theories
Demographic transition theory is a thesis linking population patterns
to a societys level of technological development. It entails four stages:
Stage 1, preindustrial: high birth rates, high death rates.
Stage 2, onset of industrialization: high birth rates, low death
rates.
.Stage 3, industrial economy: declining birth rates, low death rates.
Stage 4, a postindustrial economy: low birth rates, steady death
rates.
This approach suggests that technology holds the key to
population control.

40
The Demographic Transition

41
 Population Theories
Global population today: A brief survey.
The low-growth industrial societies of the North are now close to
zero population growth, the level of reproduction that maintains
population at a steady state.
The high-growth less-developed societies of the South are still in
Stage 2 of the demographic transition.

42
 Urbanization: The Growth of Cities

Urbanization is the concentration of humanity into cities.

I. The evolution of cities.
A. Earliest settlements were more villages than cities in todays
terms.
B. The emergence of cities led to a specialization and
higher living standards. The first Western cityJericho,
which dates back some 10,000 yearswas home to
only around 600 people.
C. Preindustrial European cities date back some 5,000
years to the Greeks and Romans.
D. In the Middle ages cities began developing

43
 Urbanization: The Growth of Cities

By 1750, a second urban revolution was transforming European cities into an

industrial model.
The city is one of the most striking features of our modern era and is basic to
many of the characteristics of modern society.
Preindustrial cities were primarily small affairs.
Urbanization has proceeded rapidly during the past 180 years,
resulting in industrial-urban centers, metropolitan cities,
megalopolises, and global cities.
Sociologists provide a number of models of city growth:
the concentric circle model,
the sector model,
the multiple nuclei model.

44
 Urbanization: The Growth of Cities

The structural patterning of cities

derives from a number of underlying ecological processes.
Segregation
Invasion
Succession
Urban gentrification is the return of middle-class professionals to older urban
neighborhood.
Urban decline in many American cities has been both descriptive and
functional.
Edge cities have been made possible by beltways and expressway, and the
development of a service-based economy.

45
Urban: Administrative Definitions in India

Towns (places with municipal corporation, municipal area committee,

town committee, notified area committee or cantonment board); also, all
places having 5000 or more inhabitants, a density of not less than 1000
persons per square mile or 400 per sq km, pronounced urban
characteristics and at least three fourths of the adult male population
employed in pursuits other than agriculture
 Unprecedented urban growth:
A global challenge
1950-2006: The urban population of the world has increased from
739 million to 3.2 billion. By 2025 around 65 per cent of the
worlds population is projected to live in cities. By 2010 more than
75 per cent of the worlds urban population will live in poorer
countries (State of the World 2007).

More than 40 per cent of the world children are estimated to be

living in polluted cities of developing world (WHO).

A billion more will be added over the next three decades in Asia
almost adding a whole new India. More than half of them will be
living in cities

What about India?

 Huge numbers . But sluggish
trends
The classical view: Agrarian crisis accelerates urban growth leads to exodus
from villages. Exponential annual growth rate in urban population during
1940s, 50s and 70s
But growth rate drops thereafter from 3.8% in the 70s to 2.7% in 90s. Share
of urban population increased slowly from 17.3%in 1951 to 27.78% in
2001.
Overall mobility of migrants stagnates. 2001: Share of total migrants in the
country has increased slightly from 27% to 29% during the 90s but this is
less than 31% in 1961.
The share of migrants in the total incremental urban population dropped
from 21.7% in 80s to 21.0% in the 90s. This co-relates well with drop in
the rate of urbanisation during the nineties.
The total urban population is still as big as 287.56 million which is almost
equal to the total population of the United States.
The trend may accelerate. Urban population may double by 2021
48
 Problem of skewed growth
Top heavy growth: Class I are growing faster than the smaller cities
growth is not evenly distributed. Only large cities have integrated
effectively with markets. Attracted more migrants.
Asymmetrical growth: Total towns have increased from 1827 in 1901 to
4368 in 2001. Million plus cities have increased from 24 in 1901 to 393
in 2001. Share of urban population in these cities have increased
from 26% in 1901 to 69% in 2001. The remaining 30% are distributed
in the remaining 3979 towns and cities.
Stagnation at the bottom: The transformation of rural settlement as
urban centres is not so pronounced. Lower rung towns largely
stagnating. Some have grown due to infrastructure investments and
rural to urban migration.
Shadow growth: Top rung cities have grown due to in-migration and aerial
expansion. Strong influence on suburbanisation.

49
 Concerns
Skewed growth leads to inequity, and serious social and
environmental imbalances
Big cities have not been able to absorb labor and investments within
the formal sector of economy leading to problem of slums and
informal economy. 21% of urban population live in slums. Nearly
40-50 per cent of people live in slums of Mumbai.
About 25.7% of the urban population live below the poverty line.
While in class I cities 12 per cent of the households are below
poverty line, in medium towns it is 23% -- even higher than rural
areas.
Urban planning has tried density control through physical planning
but failed to check in-migration or address the issue of basic
services.
Social and environmental impacts of these trends are severe as there
is also high level of inequity in the provision of basic services in
cities. Poor are pushed to periphery.
50
 How are we going to manage this growth?

The issue is not about growth but about distribution, equity and urban
governance
Air pollution and mobility crisis: Cities are being built for a small group of car
owners, disregarding the mobility needs of the majority of urban
population. Pollution and congestion costs high.
Solid waste and hazardous waste: 120,000 tonnes of garbage everyday in Indian
cities. But very limited disposal, re-use and recycling capacities. Waste to
energy remains a non-starter. Colonisation of land for waste disposal is
leading to conflicts.
Water and waste water: Per capita water supply ranges from 9 lpcd to 584 lpcd
across urban India. Only 72 cities have partial sewerage facilities and 17
have some primary treatment facilities and ..
Energy crisis: Wide gap in demand and supply, wastage. One third of India living
in cities consumes 87% of nations electricity. Remains energy inefficient.
But heavily built cities like Tokyo and New York use less energy per capita
than rural residents.
Land constraints: Urban sprawl and inefficiencies
51
 How to assert importance of community, environmental
and economic responsibilities in cities?

100%
80% Buses meet
60% substantial travel
40%
demand in Delhi
20%
0%

Bus Car, Taxi, two-wheelers Three-wheelers Ric

Yet buses bear significantly

higher tax burden in India. Tax
correction can push a large
number of two wheeler users
to buses

Poor people spend higher

share of income on travelling 52
 Cities, cars and energy insecurity

Transport energy demand has grown at 1.2 times the GDP growth
rate.
Transport sector is single largest user of oil and oil products 30
per cent of total consumption.

Personal transport uses almost all of petrol. Road transport as a

whole consumes more than 62 per cent of diesel.

ADB estimates; In India, consumption of fuels by vehicles in 2035

could be six times that of the 2005 level.

Urban car travel consumes nearly twice as energy on average as

average urban bus travel; 3.7 times more than the typical light rail
or tram; 6.6 times more than average electric urban electric train
 Strike at the very root.
Restrain personal vehicle usage.

Build public transport

International Energy Agency estimates 100 per cent difference in oil use in a
future scenario dominated by high quality bus system as opposed to that
dominated by personal vehicles in Delhi

ADB study projects that in Bangalore an increase in public transport share from
62 per cent to 80 per cent can save 21 per cent of fuel consumption.

54
 Urbanization: Trends and Patterns
286 million people in India live in urban areas (around 28% of
the population)*
The proportion of urban population in India is increasing
consistently over the years
From 11% in 1901 to 26% in 1991 and 28% in 2001
Estimated to increase to 357 million in 2011 and to 432 million
in 2021*
After independence
3 times growth - Total population
5 times growth - Urban population*

* Census of India 2001 55

 Urbanization: Trends and Patterns
4.26 crore people live in slums

A large number of slums are not notified*- around 50%

Urban growth has led to rapid increase in the number

of urban poor

In-migration and a floating population has worsened

the situation

* NSSO Report No. 486 56

 Migration-causes
Increased family size-limited agricultural property
-Land use Pattern
-Irrigation facilities
Better income prospects
Better educational facilities
Better Life style
Basic amenities health, transport,water, electricity.
Victims of natural/manmade calamities-Refugees

57
 Migration-consequences
Overcrowding
Mushrooming of slums
Unemployment
Poverty
Physical & mental stress
Family structure-Nuclear families
-Single males

58
 Migration-cobweb
Slums Migration Illiteracy

Unhygienic Overcrowding Unemployment

conditions

Stretching of Poverty
Communicable
overburdened
diseases
systems

Crimes
Non-Communicable Injuries
diseases
Stress Mental
Life style illness
modification 59
 Objectives of PURA

Integrating rural and urban development

into one scheme of composite, high
quality development.
Diverting modern business from
crowded cities to nearby rural
areas.
Maximizing employment, particularly for
the educated.
Reversing rural-urban migration.
 Innovation The Ring Road
+ Bus service
Power
Industry

Hospital Food processing

Office

With rail link

to city

Telecom Hotel Shops

School
Ring road +bus integrates all village markets
Large enough a market to support a variety of services
Resultant demand gap will attract businesses
The ring becomes a virtual city!
Sociological Research Methods
Sociologists, in order to study issues
collect Empirical Research.

Empirical Research = research based

on experiences, observations, and
experiments
Sociological Research Methods
Sociologists in collecting this data
strictly follow the Scientific Research
Method
This method allows researches to
develop an understanding of Cause
and Effect or causation.
 Ten Steps
In Sociological Investigation
1. Select and define topic
2. Review the literature
3. Develop key questions to ask
4. Assess requirements for study
5. Consider ethical issues
6. Select a research methodology
7. Collect the data
8. Interpret the findings
9. State conclusions
10. Publish the findings
 Sociological Research Methods
A Systematic Plan for Conducting Research

Hawthorne effectA change in a

subject's behavior caused by the
awareness of being studied
 Steps in the Ideal Experiment
Specify the dependent and independent variables.
Measure the dependent variable.
Expose dependent variable to independent variable.
Re-measure dependent variable to see if predicted
change took place.
If no change, modify hypothesis & re-test
 Causation
Cause and effect
A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in
another
Types of variables
Independent: The variable that causes the change
Dependent: The variable that changes (its value depends upon the
independent variable)
Correlation
A relationship by which two or more variables change together
Spurious correlation
An apparent, though false, relationship between two or more
variables caused by some other variable
 Independent and Dependent
Variables

Independent variable:
one that produces an effect on another variable

Dependent variable:
the variable affected in the relationship is the
dependent.
 What is Environmental Psychology?
EP: The study of the relationships between behavior
and experience and the built and natural
environments.

Characterized by the following:

Study of the interrelationships of environment and
behavior
Importance on applied and theoretical research
Interdisciplinary and international context
Eclectic methodology
CONTEXT

The role of context is crucial in human functioning.

Systematic approach to context as a means for identifying new

problems, which may have practical outcomes.

So, what is context?

Family?
Various behavior settings? (home, school etc.)
Psychological functioning in different cultural contexts? (Turkish,
Japanese etc.)
Language?
Natural environment?
Built environment?

In general terms: The interrelated conditions in which something

exists or occurs, the relative environment.
 Wherever we are, and whatever we are doing, our behavior
is influenced by aspects of the environment.

Buildings
Scenery
People
Sound etc.

These influences can be so powerful that they can

completely change the way we behave.

Holiday, moving, war, recreation time

BIOLOGICAL SOCIAL

BEHAVIORS

ENVIRONMENTAL
(natural and built)
1. PHYSICAL ORDER (FORM):

2. TERRITORIAL ORDER (PLACE):

3. CULTURAL ORDER (UNDERSTANDING):

 Environmental Perception and Cognition

1. Environmental Perception
Gestalt

2. Environmental Cognition
(operational)

Cognitive Maps

Wayfinding
 1. Environmental Perception
Process for gathering information about the world (source of affective
responses).

OBJECT PERCEPTION:
Simple stimuli:
Brightness
Color
Depth
Perceptual constancy
Form
Movement
Perception-in-action:
Perceiver is part of the scene.

Moving involves multiple perspectives.

Perceiver is connected by clear goal.

Gestalt Psychology:

The whole is more than the sum of its parts.

Laws of organization (how the brain operates)

Gestalt: form, unified whole, configuration.

Gestalt psychologists developed five laws that govern

human perception:
1. Law of Proximity
2. Law of Similarity
3. Law of Good Continuation
4. Law of Closure
5. Law of Prgnanz (good form)
6. Law of Figure/Ground
 Features of Cognitive Maps
Lynch (1960):
Five important elements (of legibility) in mental maps of
cities

Path distinctive thread that gives direction.

Edge the boundary between two areas.
Node important pathways come together, activity.
District medium/large area with a common identity.
Landmark reference point that stands out due to
shape, height, color, or historic importance.
EP research and residences:

Residential preference vs. residential choice:

- if difference is too great, the residence may not become a

home
- trade-offs: small apartment but close to city

Satisfaction?

Can choice and preference be predicted? design

Satisfaction and preference depend on:

1. Personal Influences: age-stage, socio-economic status,

gender-social role, personality-values, comparisons, dreams
for future

2. Social Influences: neighbors, norms, others preferences, the

shape of privacy-security-social interaction

3. Physical Influences: housing quality, housing form,

architectural style, interior, outdoor areas

4. Cultural Influences: floating houses, vernacular architecture,

beehive houses