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SAMPLING
Target Population or Universe
The population to which the investigator wants to
generalize his results
Sampling Unit:
smallest unit from which sample can be selected
Sampling frame
The sampling frame is the list from which the potential
respondents are drawn
Telephone directory
List of five star Hotel
List of student
Sampling scheme
Method of selecting sampling units from sampling frame
Sample: all selected respondent. are sample
SAMPLE
SAMPLE UNIT
SAMPLE
TARGET POPULATION
A population can be defined as including all people or items
with the characteristic one wishes to understand.
Because there is very rarely enough time or money to gather
information from everyone or everything in a population, the
goal becomes finding a representative sample (or subset) of
.
that population.
All university in India
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SAMPLING BREAKDOWN
Why Sample?
Get information about large populations
Lower cost
More accuracy of results
High speed of data collection
Availability of Population elements.
Less field time
When its impossible to study the whole population
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SAMPLING
To whom do you want to generalize your
results?
All Five Star Hotel
All Travel Agency
All Hotel Customer
Women aged 15-45 years
Other
Sample size : Minimum size is 30 no.
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SAMPLING.
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What is Good Sample?
The sample must be:
1. representative of the population;
2. appropriately sized (the larger the better);
3. unbiased;
4. random (selections occur by chance);
Merits of Sampling
Size of population
Fund required for the study
Facilities
Time
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TYPES OF SAMPLE BASED ON TWO FACTORS:
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Types of Sampling
Probability sample a method of sampling that uses of
random selection so that all units/ cases in the population
have an equal probability of being chosen.
Non-probability sample does not involve random
selection and methods are not based on the rationale of
probability theory.
Sampling
Techniques
Non-
Probability
Probability
.
Probability (Random) Samples
Simple random sample
Systematic random sample
Stratified random sample Probability
Sampling
Cluster sample
Simple Stratified Cluster
Systematic
Random Random Sampling
Sampling
Sampling Sampling
Proportionate
Dis Proportionate
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Non-Probability Samples
Convenience samples (ease of access)
sample is selected from elements of a population that
are easily accessible
Purposive sample (Judgmental Sampling)
You chose who you think should be in the study
Quota Sampling
Snowball Sampling (friend of friend.etc.)
Non-
Probability
.
Systematic Sampling
Similar to simple random sample. No table of random
numbers select directly from sampling frame. Ratio
between sample size and population size
First unit
Select select by
Work out according to random
Develop what fraction fraction (100 numbers
Define Decide the
sampling of the frame sample from then every
population sample size
frame the sample 1,000 frame then nth unit
size represents 10% so every selected
10th unit) (e.g. every
. 10th)
Systematic Sampling
ADVANTAGES:
Sample easy to select
Suitable sampling frame can be identified easily
Sample evenly spread over entire reference population
Cost effective
DISADVANTAGES:
Sample may be biased if hidden periodicity in population
coincides with that of selection.
Each element does not get equal chance
Ignorance of all element between two n element
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Systematic sampling
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Stratified random sampling can be classified in to
a. Proportionate stratified sampling
It involves drawing a sample from each stratum in
proportion to the letters share in total population
b. Disproportionate stratified sampling
proportionate representation is not given to strata
it necessery involves giving over representation to
some strata and under representation to other.
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STRATIFIED SAMPLING
Advantage :
Enhancement of representativeness to each sample
Higher statistical efficiency
Easy to carry out
Disadvantage:
Classification error
Time consuming and expensive
Prior knowledge of composition and of
distribution of population
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Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage sampling' .
First stage a sample of areas is chosen;
Second stage a sample of respondents within those areas is
selected.
Population divided into clusters of homogeneous units,
usually based on geographical contiguity.
Sampling units are groups rather than individuals.
A sample of such clusters is then selected.
All units from the selected clusters are studied.
The population is divided into subgroups (clusters) like
families. A simple random sample is taken of the subgroups
and then all members of the cluster selected are surveyed
.
Cluster sampling
Section 1 Section 2
Section 3
Section 5
Section 4
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CLUSTER SAMPLING.
Advantages :
Cuts down on the cost of preparing a sampling
frame. This can reduce travel and other
administrative costs.
Disadvantages: sampling error is higher for a
simple random sample of same size. Often
used to evaluate vaccination coverage in EPI
.
Cluster/ multi-stage random sample
Cluster sampling: selecting a sample based on specific, naturally occurring
groups (clusters) within a population.
- Example: randomly selecting 20 hospitals from a list of all
hospitals in England.
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Non Probability
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or accidental or
haphazard sampling.
Selection of whichever individuals are easiest to reach
It is done at the convenience of the researcher
For example, if the interviewer was to conduct a survey at a
shopping center early in the morning on a given day, the
people that he/she could interview would be limited to those
given there at that given time, which would not represent the
views of other members of society in such an area, if the
survey was to be conducted at different times of day and
several times per week.
This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
In social science research, snowball sampling is a similar
technique, where existing study subjects are used to recruit more
subjects into the sample.
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Convenience Sampling
Advantage: A sample selected for ease of access,
immediately known population group and good response
rate.
Disadvantage: cannot generalise findings (do not know what
population group the sample is representative of) so cannot
move beyond describing the sample.
Problems of reliability
Do respondents represent the
target population
Results are not generalizable
Advantages
Based on the experienced persons judgment
Disadvantages
Cannot measure the respresentativeness of the
sample
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QUOTA SAMPLING
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Types of Non probability Sampling Designs
Quota sampling
Based on prespecified quotas regarding demographics,
attitudes, behaviors, etc
Advantages
Contains specific subgroups in the proportions desired
May reduce bias
easy to manage, quick
Disadvantages
Dependent on subjective decisions
Not possible to generalize
only reflects population in terms of the quota, possibility
of bias in selection, no standard error
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Snowball Sampling
Useful when a population is hidden or difficult to gain access to. The
contact with an initial group is used to make contact with others.
Respondents identify additional people to included in the study
The defined target market is small and unique
Compiling a list of sampling units is very difficult
Advantages
Identifying small, hard-to reach uniquely defined target population
Useful in qualitative research
access to difficult to reach populations (other methods may not
yield any results).
Disadvantages
Bias can be present
Limited generalizability
not representative of the population and will result in a biased
sample as it is self-selecting.
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Potential Sources of Error in Research Designs
Total Error
.
Sampling Error and
Confidence
The larger the sample size the more likely error in the sample
will decrease.
But, beyond a certain point increasing sample size does not
provide large reductions in sampling error.
Accuracy is a reflection of the sampling error and confidence
level of the data.
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Errors in Sampling
Non-Observation Errors
Sampling error: naturally occurs
Coverage error: people sampled do not match the
population of interest
Underrepresentation
Non-response: wont or cant participate
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Errors of Observation
Interview error- interaction between
interviewer and person being surveyed
Respondent error: respondents have difficult
time answering the question
Measurement error: inaccurate responses
when person doesnt understand question or
poorly worded question
Errors in data collection