Axial Flow Turbines

Prepared by V. Chintala
 Contents
Stage performance Degree of reaction
h-s diagram & efficiency Overall turbine
performance Performance characteristics
Vortex theory
Design process
Prediction of performance of simple gas
turbines Off Design performance Matching
procedure.
Blade cooling, Blade materials,
 Fluid Machinery

Positive Displacement Dynamic

Working fluid is not confine
Working fluid is confined within a boundary.
within a boundary.
Energy transfer is by dynamic
Energy transfer is by volume
effects of the rotor on
changes due to the
the fluid stream.
movement of the
boundary.
* Radial-Flow - Also called Centrifugal.
- Radial flow path.
- Large change in radius from inlet to outlet.
* Axial-Flow
- Flow path nearly parallel to the axis of rotation.
- Radius of the flow path does not very significantly.
* Mixed-Flow
- Flow path radius changes only moderately.
 Axial and Radial Flow Turbines
Radial
Axial
(Centrifugal)
Used for small engines Used for large engines

Small mass flow rates Large mass flow rates

Lower efficiencies Better efficiencies

Cheap Expensive

Easy to manufacture Difficult to manufacture

Most of the gas turbines employ the axial flow turbines.

The radial turbine can handle low mass flows more efficiently than
the axial flow machines.
 Axial vs. Radial Machines

Need to determine what type of turbine is most efficient for application

- function of Ns for both compressors and turbine 6
Comparison of the Axial-Flow and Radial-Flow Compressors

Axial-Flow compressors do not significantly change the direction of

the flow stream, thus Axial-Flow Compressor allows for multiple
stages. Radial-Flow Compressors can not be staged.
While the Radial-Flow Compressor has a larger Compressor
Pressure Ratio (CPR) per stage, the multi-stages of the Axial-Flow
compressor allows for a larger overall CPR.
The frontal area for a given air flow rate is smaller for an Axial-Flow
Compressor than for a Radial-Flow Compressor.
The Axial-Flow Compressor has a higher efficiency.
Disadvantages are the higher cost to manufacture the Axial-Flow
Compressor, and the Radial-flow Compressor is more durable than
the Axial-Flow Compressor.
 Axial-Flow Compressors
The compressors in most gas turbine applications,
especially units over 5MW, use axial flow compressors.
An axial flow compressor is one in which the flow enters
the compressor in an axial direction (parallel with the axis
of rotation), and exits from the gas turbine, also in an axial
direction.
The axial-flow compressor compresses its working fluid by
first accelerating the fluid and then diffusing it to obtain a
pressure increase.
The fluid is accelerated by a row of rotating airfoils (blades)
called the rotor, and then diffused in a row of stationary
blades (the stator).
The diffusion in the stator converts the velocity increase
gained in the rotor to a pressure increase.
A compressor consists of several stages:

1. A combination of a rotor followed by a stator make-up a

stage in a compressor;

2. An additional row of stationary blades are frequently

used at the compressor inlet and are known as Inlet
Guide Vanes (IGV) to ensue that air enters the first-stage
rotors at the desired flow angle, these vanes are also
pitch variable thus can be adjusted to the varying flow
requirements of the engine; and

3. In addition to the stators, another diffuser at the exit of

the compressor consisting of another set of vanes further
diffuses the fluid and controls its velocity entering the
combustors and is often known as the Exit Guide Vanes
(EGV).
 In an axial flow compressor, air passes from one stage to
the next, each stage raising the pressure slightly.

By producing low pressure increases on the order of 1.1:1

to 1.4:1, very high efficiencies can be obtained.

The use of multiple stages permits overall pressure

increases of up to 40:1 in some aerospace applications
and a pressure ratio of 30:1 in some Industrial applications.

The increase in gas turbine efficiency is dependent on two

basic parameters:
1. Increase in Pressure Ratio
2. Increase in Firing Temperature
Axial Flow Compressor Characteristics
 The Euler Turbine Equation

Figure : Control volume for Euler Turbine Equation

The Euler turbine equation relates the power added to or removed from the
flow, to characteristics of a rotating blade row.

The equation is based on the concepts of conservation of angular momentum

and conservation of energy.
 Applying conservation of angular momentum, we note that the
torque (T) must be equal to the time rate of change of angular
momentum in a streamtube that flows through the device
Linear momentum = m velocity
Angular momentum = radius of rotation m vel.

This is true whether the blade row is rotating or not.

The sign matters (i.e. angular momentum is a vector- positive

means it is spinning in one direction, negative means it is
spinning in the other direction). So depending on how things
are defined, there can be positive and negative torques, and
positive and negative angular momentum.

Torque is positive when --

 If the blade row is moving, then work is done on/by the fluid. The work
per unit time, or power (P) is the torque multiplied by the angular
velocity (w) :
Eq.( 1)

If torque and angular velocity are of like sign, work is being done on the
fluid (a compressor).

If torque and angular velocity are of opposite sign work is being

extracted from the fluid (a turbine).

If the tangential velocity increases across a blade row (where positive

tangential velocity is defined in the same direction as the rotor motion)
then work is added to the flow (this happens in a compressor).

If the tangential velocity decreases across a blade row (where positive

tangential velocity is defined in the same direction as the rotor motion)
then work is removed from the flow (this happens in a turbine).
 Eq.( 2)

From Eqs. (1) and (2)

Euler Turbine Equation

Euler Turbine Equation relates the temperature ratio (and hence the pressure ratio) across a
turbine or compressor to the rotational speed and the change in momentum per unit mass.
 If angular momentum increases across a blade
row, then and work was done on the
fluid (a compressor).

If angular momentum decreases across a

blade row, then and work was done by
the fluid (a turbine).
 Conclusions from Euler Turbo-machinery Equation
A Change in total enthalpy is proportional to change in
tangential flow speed or tangential engine speed.
For engines with little change in mean radius (inlet to exit), the
change in total enthalpy is due to change in tangential flow
velocity of the fluid.
Creates a small change in enthalpy of fluid.
For engines with large change in radius, the change in enthalpy
is to a large degree due to the change in radius.
The centrifugal/centripetal effect.
Creates Large change in enthalpy of fluid.
How to select a suitable type of action for a resource/demand.
 Axial flow compressor

Figure A typical multistage axial flow compressor (Rolls-Royce)

 Figure Schematic representation of an axial flow compressor

An axial compressor is typically made up of many alternating rows of rotating

and stationary blades called rotors and stators, respectively

The first stationary row (which comes in front of the rotor) is typically called
the inlet guide vanes or IGV. Note that the IGV also adds no energy to the flow.
It is designed to add swirl in the direction of rotor motion to lower the Mach
number of the flow relative to the rotor blades, and thus improve the
aerodynamic performance of the rotor.

Each successive rotor-stator pair is called a compressor stage. Hence

compressors with many blade rows are termed multistage compressors.
Figure Pressure and velocity profiles through a multi-stage axial compressor
 Macro Geometric Specification of An Axial
Compressor

The geometry of a compressor can be

categorised into 3 main designs types,
A Constant Outer Diameter (COD),
A Constant Mean Diameter (CMD) or
A Constant Hub Diameter (CID),
 Axial flow turbines
Working fluid is accelerated
by the stator and decelerated
by the rotor
Boundary layer growth and
separation does not limit
stage loading as in axial
compressor

Expansion occurs in stator and in relative frame of rotor

 Axial Flow Turbine

Figure Schematic of an axial flow turbine

The stator, again does no work. It adds swirl to the flow, converting internal energy
into kinetic energy.

The rotor then extracts work from the flow by removing the kinetic energy
associated with the swirl velocity.
Stagnation
properties
Thermodynamics of An Axial flow Compressor Stage
p03 = p02
T03 = T02
p3
Va32/cp

Va22/cp
p2
T

Vw2r2 Vw1r1
P T m
T01
p01
Va12/cp

p1 T1
s
 Adiabatic expansion process
(work extracted from system -
sign convention for added
work = +w)
Rotor => -w = cp(T03-T02) <=>
w = cp(T02-T03)

Stator => 0 = cp(T02-T01)

=> T02= T01
Turbine loss coefficients:
Nozzle (stator) loss coefficients:
T2 T2
N 2
C2
2c p
p01 p02
YN
p02 p2

Nozzle (rotor) loss coefficients:

T3 T3
R
V22
2c p
p02,rel p03,rel
YR
p03,rel p3
 Governing equations and assumptions
Relative and absolute refererence
frames are related by: V C U
We only study designs where:
Ca2=Ca3
C1=C3
We repeat the derivation of theoretical work used
for radial and axial compressors:

r3, r2 = radius of rotation

Rate of change of angular momentum V1, V2, V3=Tangential velocities
Cw3r3 Cw2 r2 Theoretical torque Ca2,Ca3=radial components
Cw2, Cw3= whirl components
Theoretical work Cw3r3 Cw 2 r2 Cw3U 3 Cw2U 2
U =mean blade speed
Assume change of
direction for relative
velocity

Flow at constant radius U Cw3 Cw2 U Cw3 Cw 2
 Principle of angular momentum
Stage work output w:
w U Cw2 Cw3
U Ca 2 tan 2 Ca 3 tan 3

Ca constant:
w U Ca 2 tan 2 Ca 3 tan 3
UCa tan 2 tan 3
 Energy equation
Combine derived equations =>
w UCa tan 2 tan 3
Energy equation:
w c p T0, stage
We have a relation between temperature drop
and blade angles!!! :
c p T0, stage UCa tan 2 tan 3 (7.3)
 Dimensionless parameters
Blade loading coefficient, temperature drop
coefficient: c p T0, stage

1 2
U
2

UCa
1 2
tan 2 tan 3
U
2

2Ca
tan 2 tan 3 (7.6)
U
T2 T3
Degree of reaction: R
T1 T3
Dimensionless parameters
Finally, the flow coefficient:
Ca

U
Current aircraft practice (according
to C.R.S):
0.8 1.0
3.0 5.0
R 0.5
Aircraft practice => relatively high
values on flow and stage loading
coefficients limit efficiencies
 Aerofoil Geometry
Since airfoils are employed in accelerating and diffusing the air in a
compressor, much of the theory and research concerning the flow in
axial compressors are based on studies of isolated airfoils.

1: zero lift line

2: leading edge
3: nose circle
4: camber
5: thickness
(Chord) 6: upper surface
7: trailing edge
8: main camber line
9: lower surface
 The airfoils are curved, convex on one side and concave on the
other, with the rotor rotating toward the concave side.

The chordline of an airfoil is a straight line drawn from the leading

edge to the trailing edge of the airfoil, and the chord is the length
of the chordline.

The camberline is a line drawn halfway between the two surfaces,

and the distance between the camberline and the chordline is the
camber of the blade.

The camber angle is the turning angle of the camber line. The
blade shape is described by specifying the ratio of the chord to the
camber at some particular length on the chordline, measured from
the leading edge.
 The aspect ratio AR is the ratio of the blade length to the chord
length. The term hub-to-tip ratio is frequently used instead of
aspect ratio. The aspect ratio becomes important when three-
dimensional flow characteristics are discussed.

The blade inlet angle 1 is the angle formed by a line drawn

tangent to the forward end of the camber line and the axis of the
compressor.
The blade outlet angle 2 is the angle of a line drawn tangent to
the rear of the camberline. Subtracting 2 from 1 gives the
blade camber angle. The angle that the chordline makes with the
axis of the compressor is , the setting or stagger angle of the
blade.
High-aspect ratio blades are often pretwisted so that at full
operational speed the centrifugal forces acting on the blades will
untwist the blades to the designed aerodynamic angle.

The pretwist angle at the tip for blades with AR ratios of about
four is between two and four degrees.
 The air inlet angle 1, the angle at which incoming air
approaches the blade, is different from 1. The
difference between these two angles is the incidence
angle i.
The angle of attack is the angle between the inlet air
direction and the blade chord.
As the air is turned by the blade, it offers resistance to
turning and leaves the blade at an angle greater than
2. The angle at which the air does leave the blade is
the air outlet angle 2. The difference between 2
and 2 is the deviation angle .
The air turning angle is the difference between 1 and
2 and is sometimes called the deflection angle.
 Elementary Airfoil Theory

Angle of attack

Suction

The concave side is called the pressure side of

the blade, and the convex side is called the Pressure
suction side of the blade.
Drag
 When a single airfoil is parallel to the velocity of a
flowing gas, the air flows over the airfoil. The air
divides around the body, separates at the leading
edge, and joins again at the trailing edge of the
body.
The main stream itself suffers no permanent
deflection from the presence of the airfoil. Forces
are applied to the foil by the local distribution of
the steam and the friction of the fluid on the
surface. If the airfoil is well designed, the flow is
streamlined with little or no turbulence.
 Measurement of the pressure at various points on the surface of the
airfoil will reveal a pressure distribution.
The vectorial sum of these pressures will produce some resultant force
acting on the blade. This resultant force can be resolved into a lift
component L at right angles to the undisturbed air stream, and a drag
component D, moving the airfoil in the direction of flow motion. This
resultant force is assumed to act through a definite point located in the
airfoil so that the behavior will be the same as if all the individual
components were acting simultaneously.

Using such observed values, it is possible to define relations between

the forces

where:
L = lift force; A = surface area; D = drag force; = fluid density;
CL = lift coefficient; V = fluid velocity; CD = drag coefficient
Lift & Drag forces
 Total pressure and temperature

Static pressure and temperature

Absolute velocity

Variation of Temperature Velocity, and Pressure through an

Axial-Flow Compressor
Cascade Theory
 Axial Flow Compressor Stage

Rate of Change of Momentum: Inlet Velocity Triangle

F mVw2 Vw1 mVf 2 tan2 Vf 1tan1

Power Consumed by an Ideal

Moving Blade

P m UVf 2 tan2 Vf 1tan1

Outlet Velocity Triangle

As stated earlier, an axial-flow compressor operates on the principle of

putting work into the incoming air by acceleration and diffusion.
 Energy Analysis of An Axial Flow
Compressor Stage

Change in Enthalpy of fluid in

Inlet Velocity Triangle
moving blades :

P mh02 h01 m c p T02 T01
2
Va2 2
Va1

m c p T2 T1
2c p 2c p

Va22 2
Va1

m c p T2 T1
2c p 2c p

Va2
2 2
Va1
m h
2 h
2
1
2
Outlet Velocity Triangle
 Vr12 Vr22
h2 h1
2 2

Vr12 Vr22
T2 T1
2c p 2c p

T2 1
Isentropic compression in Rotor Blade p 2 p1 p1 1
T1

 Energy Increase
The length of the blades, and the annulus area, which
is the area between the shaft and shroud, decrease
throughout the length of the compressor. This
reduction in flow area compensates for the increase
in fluid density as it is compressed, permitting a
constant axial velocity.
In an axial flow compressor, air passes from one stage
to the next with each stage raising the pressure and
temperature slightly.
By producing low-pressure increases on the order of
1.1:1-1.4:1, very high efficiencies can be obtained.
The use of multiple stages permits overall pressure
increases up to 40:1.
 A heuristic approach for a multiple stage gas turbine compressor
would be that the energy rise per stage would be constant, rather
than the commonly held perception that the pressure rise per stage
is constant. The energy rise per stage can be written as:

where: H1, H2 = Total Inlet and Exit Enthalpy (kJ/kg)

Ns = number of stages

Assuming that the gas is thermally and caloricaly perfect (cp, and are
constant) above equation can be rewritten as:

where: Tin = Total Inlet Temperature (C) and

P1, P2 = Total Inlet and Exit Pressure (bar)
 Degree of reaction
Degree of reaction (R) may be defined for a turbine as the fraction
of overall enthalpy drop (or pressure drop) occurring in the rotor.

The degree of reaction in an axial-flow compressor is defined as

the ratio of the change of static head in the rotor to the head
generated in the stage:

R
h2 h1
Degree of Reaction of a Stage:
h02 h01

Vr12 Vr22
R 2
Vr1 Vr22 Va2
2
Va1
2
 The reaction for a symmetrical stage is fifty percent (50%). The fifty
percent (50%) reaction stage is widely used, since an adverse pressure
rise on either the rotor or stator blade surfaces is minimized for a given
stage pressure rise.
When designing a compressor with this type of blading, the first stage
must be preceded by inlet guide vanes to provide prewhirl, and the
correct velocity entrance angle to the first-stage rotor.
With a high tangential velocity component maintained by each
succeeding stationary row, the magnitude of inlet relative velocity is
decreased. Thus, higher blade speeds and axial-velocity components are
possible without exceeding the limiting value of 0.70-0.75 for the inlet
Mach number. Higher blade speeds result in compressors of smaller
diameter and less weight.
Another advantage of the symmetrical stage comes from the equality of
static pressure rises in the stationary and moving blades, resulting in a
maximum static pressure rise for the stage. Therefore, a given pressure
ratio can be achieved with a minimum number of stages, a factor in the
lightness of this type of compressor.
 The serious disadvantage of the symmetrical stage is the high exit
loss resulting from the high axial velocity component. However, the
advantages are of such importance in aircraft applications that the
symmetrical compressor is normally used. In stationary
applications, the symmetrical compressor is normally not used.
In stationary applications, where weight and frontal area are of
lesser importance, one of the other stage types is used.
The term asymmetrical stage is applied to stages with reaction
other than 50%. The axial-inflow stage is a special case of an
asymmetrical stage where the entering absolute velocity is in the
axial direction.
The moving blades impart whirl to the velocity of the leaving flow
which is removed by the following stator. From this whirl and the
velocity diagram, the major part of the stage pressure rise occurs
in the moving row of blades with the degree of reaction varying
from 60% to 90%. The stage is designed for constant energy
transfer and axial velocity at all radii so that the vortex flow
condition is maintained in the space between blade rows.
 The advantage of a stage with greater than 50% reaction is the low
exit loss resulting from lower axial velocity and blade speeds.
Because of the small static pressure rise in the stationary blades,
certain simplifications can be introduced such as constant section
stationary blades and the elimination of interstage seals.
Higher actual efficiencies have been achieved in this stage type
than with the symmetrical stage - primarily because of the reduced
exit loss.
The disadvantages result from a low static pressure rise in the
stationary blades that necessitates a greater number of stages to
achieve a given pressure ratio and thus creates a heavy
compressor.
The lower axial velocities and blade speed, necessary to keep
within inlet Mach number limitations, result in large diameters.
In stationary applications where the increased weight and frontal
area are not of great importance, this type is frequently used to
take advantage of the higher efficiency.
 Diffusion Factor
The diffusion factor (D) first defined by Lieblien is a blade-loading
criterion:
W1, W2 = relative velocities
V1, V2 = absolute velocities

The diffusion factor should be less than 0.4 for the rotor tip and
less than 0.6 for the rotor hub and the stator.
The distribution of the diffusion factor throughout the compressor
is not properly defined. However, the efficiency is less in the later
stages due to distortions of the radial velocity distributions in the
blade rows.
Experimental results indicate that even though efficiency is less in
the later stages, as long as the diffusion loading limits are not
exceeded, the stage efficiencies remain relatively high.
 Compressible Flow Machines

Owing to compressibility of gas in a compressor

The degree of reaction for equal pressure rise in stator

and rotor will be greater than 0.5.

The stage total pressure rise will be higher in order to get

equal static pressure rise in stator and rotor.
Power input to the compressor :

Pact mh03 h01 m c p T03 T01 m c p T02 T01
Inlet Velocity Triangle

Current Practice:
Vf Vf 1 Vf 2

U
tan 1 tan 1 tan 2 tan 2
Vf
Theoretical Power input to the compressor:
Outlet Velocity Triangle

Pth m UVw2 Vw1 m UVf tan2 tan1

Pth m UVf tan1 tan2
For an isentropic compressor:

Pth m c p T03 T01 mUVf tan1 tan2

Pth m c p T03 T01 m c p T03 T01 m c p T0S
UVf tan1 tan2
T0s
cp


p03,iso T0S 1
1
p01 T01


p 03,act stage T0S 1

1

p 01 T01

UVf tan1 tan2

1
stage
c
1
p03,act p

p01 T01


2
Vr1 Vr2
2
R 2
Vr1 Vr2
2
Va2
2
Va1
2

U
tan1 tan1 tan2 tan 2
Vf

Vf tan1 tan1 tan2

Vr2
cos 2
Need to determine what type of turbine is most efficient for application
- function of Ns for both compressors and turbine

N m / 2 N m / 2
Ns
h0ideal
3/ 4 3/ 4
p 1 /
c pT01 1 02
p01

90
 Compressor Performance Parameters
For a gas compressor, the functional dependence of compressor
exit total/stagnation pressure Ptexit and the adiabatic compressor
efficiency c can be expressed as follows;

The gas properties of relevance to the compression process are

characterized by the kinematic viscosity , specific heat ratio , and
the gas constant R. The geometry dependence of the machine is
set by the design and its characteristic size D such as the tip
diameter of compressor.
 Performance Losses in an Axial-Flow Compressor
The losses as mentioned earlier can be further described:

1. Disc friction loss. This loss is from skin friction on the discs that house the
blades of the compressors. This loss varies with different types of discs.
2. Incidence loss. This loss is caused by the angle of the air and the blade
angle not being coincident. The loss is at a minimum to about an angle of
4o, after which the loss increases rapidly.
3. Blade loading and profile loss. This loss is due to the negative velocity
gradients in the boundary layer, which gives rise to flow separation.
4. Skin friction loss. This loss is from skin friction on the blade surfaces and
on the annular walls.
5. Clearance loss. This loss is due to the clearance between the blade tips
and the casing.
6. Wake loss. This loss is from the wake produced at the exit of the rotary.
7. Stator profile and skin friction loss. This loss is from skin friction and the
attack angle of the flow entering the stator.
8. Exit loss. This loss is due to the kinetic energy head leaving the stator.
 Turbo Engine Comparison
Turboprop Turbofan Turbojet
Medium-speed Internal Propeller High speed
Moderate-size craft Supersonic speeds Mach 4
High efficiency High bypass airflow Low airflow rate
Limited flight speed Med/High efficiency Low efficiency
Geared transmission No gearbox High op temps

NOTE: Due to the ram compression due to flight speed, the optimum compressor
pressure ratio (CPR) goes to zero around Mach 4.
CPR 30:1 for subsonic flight.
CPR 10:1 @ Mach 2.
Compressor not needed at Mach 4; Ramjet.
 Example Problem
Given a first single stage of an Axial Compressor with the following
conditions: ambient pressure (Pin) 1 atmosphere, ambient
temperature (Tin) 300K, aircraft cruising speed (Vin) 170m/s, median
blade diameter (D) 0.5m, rotor rpm (Urotor) 8000rpm, turning angle
() 15 degrees, specific heat ratio () 1.4, air mass flow rate (mdot)
35kg/s, and (Cp) conversion factor 1004 m2/s2*K, calculate the first
stage Compressor Pressure Ratio (CPR).

m
Pin 1atm Tin 300K Vin 170 D .5m
s
2
m
Urotor 8000rpm 15deg 1.4 Cp 1004
2
s K
kg
kg 1000gm mdot 35
s
 W1
Vin 1

Blade motion

D 2
U r U 8000
2 60 s
m
U 209.44
s
W x U m
W x 209.44
s
 Step 2.
W1
Vin 1
Calculate the air to blade
relative velocity and the
U
angle between the relative
and actual air speed.

m
W 1 Wx
2
Vin
2
W 1 269.75
s

Wx
1 atan 1 50.934 deg
V in
 Step 3.
Axial velocity (Vin) does not change.
W2 Calculate relative exit angle(2), then
2 portion of the relative blade speed
Vin
(Uw2). Calculate relative air speed (W2)
U w2

V in
2 1 U w2 V in tan 2 W 2

cos 2

m m
2 35.934 deg U w2 123.214 W 2 209.956
s s
 Step 4.
Calculate the portion of the relative
V2 W2 blade speed associated with the actual
2
Vin air velocity (Uv2), the calculate the
actual air speed (V2).
U v2 U w2

m
Uv2 W x Uw2 Uv2 86.226
s
2 2 m
V2 Vin Uv2 V2 190.617
s
The Compressor Pressure
1
Ratio (CPR) is found from P o2 T o2
T
the isentropic relationship. P o1 o1

To1 is calculated from the following equation.

To2 has to be calculated from the specific work
of the compressor stage.

2
Vin
To1 Tin
2 Cp To1 314.392 K
 Specific work of the stage is
calculated from the torque of the Tshaft
wstage
shaft, angular velocity of the mdot
blade, and mass flow rate of the
air.
Tshaft mdot Uv1 Uv2
Torque of the shaft is: D
m
2
Uv1 0
s Tshaft 754.476 J
No initial tangential component to the
inlet velocity.

Power Tshaft
2
8000
60 s
Power of the shaft is: Power 632.068 kW
Specific work of wstage
Power 4 J
wstage 1.806 10
the stage is then: mdot kg

Now To2 can be calculated from the specific work

To1, and the conversion factor.

wstage
To2 To1 To2 332.38 K
Cp

1
 wstage Ratio can be
Finally, the Compressor Pressure
To1
To2 calculated!!!
Cp

1
To2
CPR
To1

CPR 1.215
 Axial Flow Turbine
Example (Mean diameter design)
Given: Single-stage turbine
m = 20 kg/s
t = 0.9
To1 = 1100 K
Temperature drop, To1 To3 = 145 K
Pressure ratio, Po1 / Po3 = 1.873
Inlet pressure, Po1 = 4 bar
Assumptions:
Rotational speed fixed by compressor: N = 250 rps
Mean blade speed: 340 m/s
Nozzle loss coefficient:
T2 T2
N 2
C2 / 2 C p
 Axial Flow Turbine
Calculation:
a) degree of reaction at mean radius
b)Plot velocity diagrams
c)Blade height h, tip/root radius, rt / rr
Assume: Ca2 Ca3 , C1 C3
1 0
The temperature drop coefficient:
2 C p Tos 2 1.148 145 103
2.88
U2 340 2

Assume (try):
Ca
flow coefficient 0.8
U
 Axial Flow Turbine

* To calculate degree of reaction :

Get 3:
3 = 0

tan 3 tan 3
1
tan 3 1.25

To get use 1 1
tan 3

2
2 2
0.28
This is low as a mean radius value because will
be low or negative at the root.
This introduce a value for 3.
Take 3 = 10
 Axial Flow Turbine
1
tan 3 tan 3 tan 3 1.426

1 1
tan 3 2
2 2
0.421 (Acceptable)

Reaction at root should be checked.

Thus 3 = 10, 3 = tan-1 1.426 = 54.96
1 1
tan 2 2 0.374
2 2
0.421
2.88
0.8
2 20.49
 Axial Flow Turbine
1
tan 2 tan 2 1.624

2 58.38
With knowledge of 3 , 3 , 2 , 2 , U

plot velocity diagrams.

* Determine blade height h and tip/root radius ratio, rt / rr

.

Assumption:
C1 :axial Ca1

Calculation of area at Section 2 (exit of nozzle)

 Axial Flow Turbine
Ca2 U 340 0.8 272 m/s
C2 cos 2 Ca2 C2 519 m/s
To2 To1 1100 K
C22
To2 T2 T2 5.9 K
2Cp
C22
T2 T2 N 0.05 117.3 5.9 K
2Cp
T2 976.8 K

/ 1
Po1 To1 Po1 4
P2 2.49 bar
Po2 T2
 Axial Flow Turbine
For the nozzle:
To1 T1 C 2 /(2 C p ) 1 M 1 1
1 M 2

T1 T1 2 2

Po1 1 1 4
Pc 2.16
Pc 2 1.853
P2 > Pc, the nozzle is not choked. Thus, Pthroat P2 2.49
P2
2 2 0.833kg / m3
RT2
m
A2 , or , m 2Ca A2 , A2 0.0833m 2
2 Ca
m
throat area of nozzles; A 2 N
2 C2
or , m 2C2 A2 N A2 N 0.0437m 2 , also A 2 cos 2 A2 N
 Axial Flow Turbine
Calculate areas at section (1) inlet nozzle and (3) exit rotor.

Ca3
Ca1 C1 , but C1 C3 and C3 , Ca1 276.4m / s
cos 3
C12
T1 To1 T1 1067 K
2c p

P1 T1 1
P1 3.54bar
Po1
To1
P1
1 1 1.155kg / m3
RT1
m 1Ca1 A1 A1 0.626m 2
 Axial Flow Turbine
Similarly at outlet of stage ( rotor)
To3 To1 To5 1100 145 955 K , given
C32
T3 To3 T3 922 K
2c p

P3 T3 1
P3 1.856bar
Po3 To
3
P3
3 5 0.702kg / m3
RT5
3 P3 / RT5 5 0.702kg / m 2
m 3Ca3 A3 A3 0.1047m 2
Blade height and annulus radius ratio
 Axial Flow Turbine
Mean radius
340
um 2 Nrm rm 0.216m
2 (250)
also for known (A); A 2 rm h
A h h
h then rt rm , rr rm
2 rm 2 2
using areas at stations 1,2,3 thus

Location 1 2 3
A1m 2 0.0626 0.0833 0.1047
h1m 0.04 0.0612 0.077
rt / rr 1.24 1.33 1.43
 Axial Flow Turbine
Blade with width W
Normally taken as W=h/3
Spacing s between axial blades
space s
0.25, should not be less than 0.2 W
width w
rt
* should be 1.2 1.4
rr
unsatisfactory values such as 0.43 can be reduced by
changing axial velocity through .
increasing Ca will reduce rt check has to be made for mach number M v .
 Axial Flow Turbine
Vortex Theory
The blade speed ( u=r) changes from root to tip, thus
velocity triangles must vary from root to tip.

Free Vortex design

axial velocity is constant over the annulus.
Whirl velocity is inversely proportional to annulus.
Ca2 cons tan t , C 2 r cons tan t
Ca3 cons tan t , C3 r const ,
Along the radius.

Ws u C2 C3 (C2 r C3 r ) cons tan t
 Axial Flow Turbine
For variable density, m is given by
m 2 (2rr )C a 2

rt
2 rdr
m 2C a2
rr

C r cons tan t r C
2 a2 tan 2
but Ca 2 is cosntant, thus 2 changes as
rm
tan 2 tan 2 m (a)
r 2
similarly
rm
tan 3 tan 3m (b)
r 3
 Axial Flow Turbine
u
u Ca2 tan 2 Ca2 tan 2 , thus, tan 2 tan 2
Ca2
rm r um
tan 2 m (c)
r 2 rm Ca2
for exit of rotor u Cas tan 3 Ca3 tan 3
rm r u
thus tan3 tan 3m (d)
r 3 rm 3 Ca3
Ex: Free vortex
Results from mean diameter calculations
2 m 58.38, 2m 20.49, 3 m 10o ,
3 m 54.96, h2 0.0612, rm 0.216,
h
h3 0.077, rr rm
2
 Axial Flow Turbine
rm rm rm rm
1.164, ( ) 2 0.877, 1.217, 0.849
rt 2 rt rr 3 rt 3
u m 1 um
also 1.25, Results are
Ca 2 Ca3

2 2 3 3
Tip 54.93 0 8.52 58.33

Root 62.15 39.32 12.12 51.13

mean 58.38 20.49 10 54.96

 Axial Flow Turbine

U
tan 2 tan 2 tan 3 tan 3
Ca
Wm c p Tos m c p (To1 To3 ) m
UC a (tan 2 tan 3 ) m
UC a (tan 2 tan 3 )
m
UC a (tan 2 tan 1) m
UC a (tan 2 tan 1)
To' 3 p
Tos To1 To3 sTo1(1 ) sTo1(1 ( o3 ) /( 1) )
To1 po1
T T
where s o1 o3
To1 To' 3
 Why cooling is needed?
Thermal evaluation high temp. high Efficiency
Metallurgical limitation of material low temp. is allowed
Cooling:
To reduce thermal stresses
Protects the blade and other components from being subjected to
undesirable thermal stresses
To improve thermal performance by allowing high temp. gases at
inlet of turbine (With cooling, high temp. compatibility of the
material increases)

Disadvantages:
Enthalpy loss due to coolant (air) mixed with expanding gases
Cooling penalty/loss of work due to net temp. reduction
 Sources of cooling

Air from fan

Air from low pressure compressor
Air from secondary flow on CC
Methods of blade cooling
Convective ( Internal cooling )
Film cooling
Transpiration cooling

Convective cooling
Hot air flows around blades
Blades are cooled with air, which flows through
cooling holes inside blade
Film cooling
Cooling is provided with cooling air,
which is delivered through the holes
on the blade surface.
Cooling with air film is more
efficient as convective cooling

Transpiration cooling
Transpiration cooling is similar technique
of cooling as cooling with air film.
In this case is generated a homogeneous surface of
cooling air on surface of blade
Transpirationally cooled blades have no holes.
Air flow through the porous surface of blade.
Compressor Blade Materials
List of turbine blade materials
U-500 This material was used as a first stage (the most demanding stage)
material in the 1960s, and is now used in later, less demanding, stages.
Rene 77
Rene N5
Rene N6
PWA1484
CMSX-4
CMSX-10

Inconel
IN-738 - GE used IN-738 as a first stage blade material from 1971 until 1984, when it
was replaced by GTD-111. It is now used as a second stage material. It was
specifically designed for land-based turbines rather than aircraft gas turbines.
GTD-111 Blades made from directionally solidified GTD-111 are being used in
many GE Energy gas turbines in the first stage. Blades made from equiaxed GTD-
111 are being used in later stages.
EPM-102 (MX4 (GE), PWA 1497 (P&W)) is a single crystal superalloy jointly
developed by NASA, GE Aviation, and Pratt & Whitney for the High speed civil
transport (HSCT). While the HSCT program was cancelled, the alloy is still being
considered for use by GE and P&W.
 Compressor blading is made by forging, extrusion or machining. All
production blades, until the advent of he new Advanced
Gas Turbines, have been made from stainless steels, Type 403 or 403 Cb
both having about 12 Cr. This family of alloys has properties
which include good ductility at high strength levels, uniform properties,
and good strength at temperatures up to about 900F (482C).
Because of the new axial flow compressors which have pressure ratio of
30:1 to 40:1, and exit temperatures between 1000F 1150F
(538C - 621C), new compressor blade material, a precipitation
hardened, martensitic stainless steel such as 15-5 PH nominal, was
introduced into production for advanced and uprated machines, as shown
in Table 4. This material provides increased tensile strength
without sacrificing stress corrosion resistance. Substantial increases in the
high-cycle fatigue and corrosion fatigue strength are also
achieved with this material, compared with the Type 403 stainless steel
with 12Cr.
 Superior corrosion resistance is also achieved due
to the metals higher concentration of chromium and molybdenum
content. Compressor corrosion results from moisture containing
salts and acids collecting on the blading. During operation, moisture can
be present because of rain, use of evaporative coolers, fogging
systems, or compressor water washes, or condensation resulting from
humid air being accelerated at the compressor inlet. Moisture
may be present in the compressor during operation up to between stage
5 and stage 8, where it usually becomes warm enough to prevent
condensation. When the turbine is not in operation, the compressor can
still become wet if metal temperatures are below the local dew
point. This can happen to units stored in humid environments. The
chemistry of this moisture deposit, especially the salt in the air
depositing on the blading, determines the severity of the corrosion
phenomenon.
The high temperature blade alloy is normally produced by vacuum-arc
remelting to reduce inclusions, and is advertised to have
a balanced chemistry that minimizes the formation of delta-ferrite.

Inclusions and the delta-ferrite would provide planes of weakness

in that part. It is not uncommon for the mill to supply forging stock
that has first been given a 1900F heat treatment, just for better
forgeability.
The forged blanks are then usually reheat-treated at 1900F, followed
by hardening treatments between 1100F and 1150F depending on
the properties sought. There is a general correlation between
hardness and strength (tensile/fatigue).

A hardness of RC 32 suggests that the tensile strength is around

150000 psi and that the hardening temperature used during
manufacture was somewhere
around 1100F to 1150F.
Coating of the compressor blades is now very common. Compressor
blades suffer a great amount of corrosion pitting from impurities in
the air stream.

This corrosion pitting has led to blade failures. Compressor blades in

many cases have over 100,000 hours but due to pitting can be
reduced considerably to between 20,000 60,000 hours.

It has been a very common practice for over 30 years to coat at least
the first 5-8 stages depending on the compressor design.

The first stages are considered to be the wet stages because many
units now use on line water washes, as well as have evaporative
cooling and fogging for power augmentation.
Coating for these blades is usually consistent of a duplex type coating,
which must be at least 3 mils in thickness. This coating as most typical
coating has a sacrificial undercoat coating which is placed on the base
metal and is covered by a ceramic coating.

Ni-Cd coating is also used in selected applications, and new coatings

consisting of an aluminum slurry coating which has a protective
ceramic top layer that provides improved erosion resistance are also
being introduced. This type of coating, as compared to conventional
aluminum slurry coatings, is better in corrosion protection and
substantially better in erosion resistance. This type of coating also
improves the performance of the gas turbine by reducing the amount
of power consumed by the compressor.

Tests conducted show a reduction of 2%-3% in the power consumed by

the compressor which pays back additional cost of coating in 4-6
months of operation.
The aspect ratio of axial flow compressors including the IGV vary
from about AR = 4, to an aspect ratio of about AR = 0.5.

All IGVs and the first five to eight stages of rotating and
stationary airfoils in the compressor are made from Martensitic
High Temperature Stainless Steel; or 15-5 PH nominal blade
material, the next stages are usually coated AISI 403 or 403 Cb.