BASIC

ELECTRICITY
 Matter
Can be defined as anything that has
mass (weight) and occupies space

Exists in Solids
Liquids
Gases
 The smallest
particle of
matter

Molecule

As a compound of one or more atoms

For example :
A molecule of water (H2O) is a compound of two
atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen
Atom

Atom is considered the basic building

block of all matter

Atom consists of one or more electrons

orbiting at a high rate of speed around
a Center or Nucleus

Nucleus is made up of one or more Protons

and one or more Neutrons
 The simplest atom is Hydrogen, one electron
orbiting around one proton

More complex atom is Oxygen, consists of 8

electrons rotating around a Nucleus made up of
8 protons and 8 neutrons
The neutrons have no electrical charge, they are neither
(+) or (-) but are equal in size and weight to the proton.

The overall weight of an atom is determined by the

number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus

The weight of an electron is not considered

When the total positive charge of protons in the nucleus

equals the total negative charge of electrons in orbit
around the nucleus, it is said a netral charge

if an atom has a shortage of electrons, it is called

positive ion.

If an atom possesses an excess of electrons, it is called

negative ion
Static Electricity

The word static means stationary or at

rest, refer to the deficiency or to the excess
of electrons
A simple experiment, running a dry comb
through hair, will produce cracking or popping
sound, indicating static discharge are taking
place.
The charges thus built up consist of electrons
transferred to the comb as the result of
friction
Static electricity has little practicla, and
often causes problem, it is difficult to control
and discharge quickly
Generation of Static Electric

Static Electricity can be produced by contact,

friction or induction
Example :
Using a friction method, a glass rod rubbed with fur
becomes negative charge, but if rubbed with silk
become positive charge
When two material are rubbed together, some elec-
tron orbit of atom in one material may cross the
orbits or shells the other
The transferred electrons in the outer shells or
orbits are called free electron
Summary
The fundamental law of electricity :
All electrons are alike repel each other
All protons are alike repel each other
Electron and proton are not alike attract
each other
A method of charging a metal bar by
Induction is demonstrated in figure below
Electrostatic Field

A field of force exists around a charge body

This field is an electrostatic field (some time
called a dielectric field) and represented by
line extending in all direction from the charged
body and terminating where there is an equal
and opposite charge
Electromotive Force (e.m.f)

The flow of electron from a negative point to a

positive point, it is called an electric current

If one end of conductor is excess of electron (nega-

tive point) and the other end is deficiency of
electron (positive point), and electrostatic field
exists between the two charges

The flow of electric current can be compared to the

flow of water between two interconnected water
tanks as figure below
 When valve is opened, the water will flow from A to B
The flowing of water is caused by a differential
between tank A and B not caused by pressure
in tank A
The force that causes this movement (flowing) is the
potential difference in electrical energy between two
point
This force is called: electrical pressure or potential
difference or electromotive force (e.m.f)
The practical measument of e.m.f is Volt
The symbol for e.m.f is the capital letter E
 Electromotive force and potential
difference
the stimulus that causes a current to flow is an
e.m.f.
this represents the energy introduced into the
circuit by a battery or generator
this results in an electric potential at each
point in the circuit
between any two points in the circuit there may
exist a potential difference
both e.m.f. and potential difference are
measured in volts
 A simple circuit

A water-based
analogy
Current Flow (I)

Electrons in motion make up an electric current.

Usually it is called as Current or Current Flow
. DC current : Current flows in one direction only
. AC current : Current that reverses itself periodically

Coulomb is used to measure an amount or quantity of

electrical charge

Current flow is measured in Amperes (using electrical

instrument Ammeter)

I the symbol used to indicate current

Direct Current and
Alternating Current 2.5

Currents in electrical circuits may be

constant or may vary with time
When currents vary with time they may be
unidirectional or alternating
When the current flowing in a conductor
always flows in the same direction this is
direct current (DC)
When the direction of the current
periodically changes this is alternating
current (AC)
Resistance = Electrical Impedance

Opposition To Flow Of Electrical

Current
Measured In Ohms
Ohms Law :
Current Flow = Voltage
Resisrance
Resistance (R)

Resistance is the property of conductor of electricity

that limits or restrics the flow of electric current

Electric pressure is required to overcome this resis-

tance which is attractive and holding the electrons in
their orbits

Conductor is the material which offer low resistance

to current flow (large number of free electrons)

Insulator is the material which offer high resistance

to current flow (less number of free electrons)
Semiconductor is the material offering a midway
between the best conductor and the poorest conduc-
tor (as insulator), the greatest application in the
field of transistors

Best conductors : silver, copper, gold and aluminum

Poor conductos : rubber, glass, ceramic and plastic

The unit to measure Resistance (R) is the Ohm ()

Factors affecting
Resistance

There are 4 factors affecting the conductor

resistance
1. Type of conductor material
depend on less or more of electrons in
their outer orbbits.
* Copper is the best available conductor
2. Length of the conductor
More length gives more resistance
3. Cross-sectional area
more larger area will reduce resistance
4. Temperature
Increase temp will increase resistance
Source of Power (e.m.f) :
- Generator
- Chemical source (battery)
- Photoelectric source (light)
- Thermal source (heat)

The circuit below contains :

- A source of electrical pressure or e.m.f
(storage battery)
- Conductors to provide a path for the flow of
electrons from negative to positive terminal
-The device (lamp) to limit the current flow
Basic Circuit Components and Symbols

Battery
Dry Cell Battery
-The shorter vertical indicate negative terminal
- The longer vertical indicates positive terminal
- The horizontal line indicates conductor
- Each cell of battery contains negative and positive
terminal
Battery in Series Connection
The Voltage is equal to the sump of voltage of the
individual voltage

The Current is equal to the current rating of

a single cell

Battery in Parallel Connection

The total Current is equal to the sum of the
individual current from each Cell

The Voltage is equal to the voltage of each Cell

Conductors

Materials That Permit Free Movement

of Electrons
Composed Of Large Numbers of Free
Electrons
Offer Little Resistance To Current Flow
Good Conductors
Metals (copper, gold, silver, aluminum)
Electrolyte Solutions
Conductors 1

1 Crossing but
Not connected

2 Connected wire
2

3 A safety device to prevent

damage to the conductor
and circuit by excessive 3
current flow
 Ground Symbol
This is the reference
Point from which most
Circuit voltage are
measured

Ammeter & Voltmeter synbols

Ammeter :
- Measure current flow
- Connected in series with the
power source and resistance

Voltmeter :
- Mesure voltage across circuit
- Connected in parallel (crossing
the circuit component)
NP=(PJ/ST) x BU

NP= Nilai pengukuran,

PJ = penunjukan jarum,
ST=skala tertinggi,
BU= Batas ukur
 PJ = 20, ST = 50, BU = 25 mA

NP=(PJ/ST) x BU maka:
NP = (20/50) x 25 mA
NP= Nilai pengukuran, Np= 10 mA
PJ = penunjukan jarum,
ST=skala tertinggi,
BU= Batas ukur
Resistor

Resistance in practical circuit may be in form

of any electrical devices such as motor or a lamp

On the other hand, the resistance (resistor) is

the device inserted in a circuit to limit current flow

There are several varity of Resistor :

- Fixed Ohmic
- Variable Ohmic
Manufactured product :
- Wirewound resistor control large current
- Graphit (carbon) control relative small current
- Metal film
Resistance = Electrical Impedance

Opposition To Flow Of Electrical Current

Measured In Ohms
Ohms Law
Current Flow= Voltage
Resistance
Fixed wire-wound resistors

Fixed and adjustable taps

can be used to change the
resistance value in increa-
ments or steps
Wire-wound variable resistor
Carbon variable resistor
Symbol of fixed resistor

Symbol of tapped resistor

which has a fixed value but
is provided with taps to select
the amount of resistance
Resistor Color Code

The resistance value can be measured by using

Ohmmeter (but this seldom necessary)

Most wirewound resistors have their resistance value

in ohms printed on the body of the resistor

The color code marking is used to identify the resis-

tance value of carbon resistance
There is only one color code for carbon resistor
But, there are two methods used to paint this color
code on resistor :
1. The body-end-dot system
2. The end-to-center band system
continued

In each color code system, three colors are used to

indicate the resistance value in ohms, and a fourth
color is sometimes used to indicate the tolerance of
the resistor (in percentages)

The first color band (nearest the end of the resis-

tor ) will indicate the first digit in the numerical
resistance value (This band will never be gold or
silver in color)

The second color band will always indicate the

second digit of ohmic value (it will never be gold or
silver in color)
continued

The third color band indicates the number of zeros

to be added to the two digits derived from the
first and second bands, except in the following two
cases :
1. If the third band is gold in color, the first two
digits must be multiplied by 10 %
2. If the third band is silver in color, the first two
digit must be multiplied by 1%

If there is a fourth color band, it is used as multi

plier for percentage of tolerance

If there is no fourth band, the tolerance is under

stood to be 20%
Color band Numerical Significance
value

1st band red 2 1st digit

2nd band green 5 2nd digit
3rd band yellow 4 No. of zeros to add
There is no fourth color band

Resistance
would be
There is no fourth color band, so the tolerance
is understood to be 20%

So, 20% of 250,000 = 50,000 (as plus or minus)

Max. Resistance : 250,000 + 50,000 = 300,000 ohms

Min. Resistance : 250,000 50,000 = 200,000 ohms

Determine the value of resistor code
Determine the value of resistor code

8
6
3 zeros
10%

The resistance of the resistor is : 86,000 + 10%

Maximum : 94,600
Minimum : 77,400
Exercise :
Determine resistance of each resistor below

3
Exercise :
Determine resistance of each resistor below

960 + 5%
1 Max. : 1,008 ohms
Min. : 912 ohms

2,500 + 2%
Max. : 2,550 ohms
2 Min. : 2,450 ohms

10 + 1%
Max. : 10.1 ohms
3 Min. : 9.9 ohms
 When the third band is gold in color, it indicates
that the first two digits must be multiplied by
10%

When the third band is silver, the first two digits

must be multiplied by 1%
 When the third band is gold in color, it indicates
that the first two digits must be multiplied by
10%

When the third band is silver, the first two digits

must be multiplied by 1%

The resistance must be

10 x 0.10 + 2% = 1 + 2% ohms

1 0 10% 2%

The resistance must be

45 x 1% + 10% = 0.45+ 10% ohm

4 5 1% 10%
Body-End-Dot System

Body color ---------- 1st digit of ohmic value

End color ---------- 2nd digit of ohmic value
Dot color ---------- Number of zeros to be added

What
resistance
Body-End-Dot System

Body color 1st digit : 2

End color 2nd digit : 5
Dot color Number of zeros : 0000 (4)

Value :
250,000 + 20% ohms

(The tolerance 20%,

because no second dot
is used)
Ohms
I = E / R
Law

I is Current in Amperes
E is the Potential Difference in Volts
R is the Resistance in Ohms

I=E
R
= 24 volts
3
I = 8 amperes
Voltage vs Current in a constant resistance circuit
Summarized Ohms Law
Power

Power is defined as the rate of doing work

and is equal to the product of the Voltage and
Current in a DC Circuit

The power result is measured in Watts (P)

P = I.E

E E2
P = E x or P =
R R
 Power (P) = 33,000 ft.lb
OR
(1 horsepower) 1 min (60 sec)

P = 550 ft.lb/sec

100 watt bulb consumes electrical energy for 20

hrs, it has used 2,000 watt hours or 2 kilowatt
hours of electrical energy

P = IxE; E = IxR; P = IxIxR; P = I2xR

For example :
What current which is through a 500 watt, 100 ohm
load (resistance)
I2 = P/R; I2 = 500/100; I = 2.24 amperes
Series DC Circuits

An example below is a simple series circuit (A)

It is a circuit because it provides a complete
path for current to flow from (-) to (+)
It is a series circuit because there is only one
path in which current can flow, as indicated by
the errows
Several components installed, one after the
other, or in series (B)

B
A
Note :
No matter how many components are included in a
series circuit, the current is the same intensity
throughout the circuit

At previous slide (figure B), the total current(IT)

through R1 and R2 would be : I = I = I
T 1 2

Total resistance(RT) in a series circuit is the sum of

the separate resistance in the circuit
RT = R 1 + R 2
 Example (Ref. Figure B above)
R1 = 5 ohm; R2 = 10 ohm; E = 30 Volts
RT = ?

There are two resistance in the circuit, there will be

two separate voltage drops :
E1 = ? E2 = ?

If the voltage used across the two resistors are

added, the value equals to the applied voltage
(battery voltage)
 Example (Ref. Figure B above)
R1 = 5 ohm; R2 = 10 ohm; E = 30 Volts
RT = 5 + 10 = 15 ohm; I = E I = 30 = 2 amperes
R 15
There are two resistance in the circuit, there will be
two separate voltage drops :
E1 = I.R1 E2 = I.R2
E1 = 2amp x 10 ohm E2 = 2amp x 5 ohm
E1 = 20 volt E2 = 10 volt

If the voltage used across the two resistors are

added, the value equals to the applied voltage
(battery voltage)
 RT ?

IT ?

Voltage drops at
each resistance ?
RT = R1+R2+R3
= 30+60+10
= 100 ohm

IT = ET
RT

= 150 volt
100 ohm
= 1.5 amperes

Voltage drops (E = I.R)

ER1 = 1.5amp x 30 ohm ER1 = 45 volt
ER2 = 1.5amp x 60 ohm ER2 = 90 volt
ER3 = 1.5amp x 10 ohm ER3 = 15 volt
150 volt
(The sum of the voltage drops equals the applied voltage)
Kirchhoff Laws

Current Law :
The sum of the current at any junction of
conductors in a circuit is zero. This
means that the amount of current flowing
away from a point in a circuit is equal to the
amount flowing to that point

Voltage Law:
The sum of the applied voltage and the
voltage drop around any closed circuit is zero,
This means that the voltage drop around
any closed circuit is equal to the applied
voltage
I1 + I2 + I3 = 0
-4 + I2 + (-1)= 0
I2 =1+4
I2 =5

-4 + 5 + (-1) = 0

Applied Voltage 30Vlt

Current flowing 1 amp

- Total R ?
- Total voltage = 0 (?)
- Voltage drops at each R ?
I1 + I2 + I3 = 0
-4 + I2 + (-1)= 0
I2 =1+4
I2 =5

-4 + 5 + (-1) = 0

R1,R2,R3 = 30
Applied voltage = 30 v
Current flowing = 1 amp

Total voltage (ET) = 0

+30 5 10 15 = 0
Parallel DC
Circuits A circuit in two or more electrical
resistance or loads, are connected
across the same voltage source

E1 across R1
E2 across R2
E3 across R3
ET = E1 = E2 = E3

I1 across R1
I2 across R2
I3 across R3
IT = I1 + I2 + I3
I1 = E = 6 = 0.4 amps
R1 15
I2 = E = 6 = 0.24 amps
R2 25
I3 = E = 6 = 0.5 amps
R3 12
IT = 0.4 + 0.24 + 0.5 = 1.14 amp

If there are only two

resistors in a parallel
circuit, the formula is :

RT = R2 x R3
R2 + R3
(R2 and R3 are not equal)
If there are any number of resistances in parallel and
they are equal resistance, the Total Resistance
would be the resistance value of one resistance (R)
is divided by the number (N) of resistance in parallel

RT = R
N
If there are any number of resistances in parallel and
they are equal resistance, the Total Resistance
would be the resistance value of one resistance (R)
is divided by the number (N) of resistance in parallel

RT = R
N

R2 and R3 in parallel
(equal resistance)

Rparallel = R
N
= 10 = 5 ohm
2
The circuit would be :
Ra = R2 x R3 = 120 x 40 = 30 Rb = R = 60 = 20
R2 + R3 120 + 40
N 3
The circuit would be :

RT = R1 + Ra + Rb + R7 + R8
Electromagnetism

Oersted discovered that the magnetic had no connection

with the conductor in which the electrons were flowing,
because the conductor was made of nonmagnetic copper

The magnetic field around the conductor was created by

the electrons moving through the wire
 As long as current flows in the conductor, the lines of
force remain around it.
If the currnet flow is increased, the line of force will
increase to circle B or C
When the current stops, the magnetism around the conductor
disappears
 Storage
Batteries

There are two sources

in an aircraft

1. Generator Driven
by engine

Converts mechanical energy

Into electrical energy

2. Battery

Converts chemical energy

Into electrical energy
Note :
During normal engine opration, electrical
is taken from engine generator
The battery is used as an auxiliary source
of power when the generator not operated
During flight (engine running), the engine
generator charges the battery
Two types of batteries in general use :
1. Lead Acid Battery
2. Nickel Cadmium battery
1. Lead-Acid Batteries

Battery is similar to automobile battery

The cells of battery are connected in series
Each cell contains
- positive plate of lead peroxide (PbO2)
- negative plate of spongy lead (Pb)
- electrolyte (sulfuric acid (H2SO4 and water)
In discharging : the chemical energy stored in the
battery is changed to electrical energy
In charging : the electrical energy supplied to the
battery is changed to chemical energy and stored
Battery can charged many times before it deteri
orates permanently
Lead-Acid Battery Ratings

The voltage of One lead acid cell is nor-

battery is mally rated at 2 volts
determined by
the number of Battery 12 volt ... ?
cells connected Consists of 6 cells
in series
Battery 24 volt ... ?
Consists of 12 cells
Note :
The battery is rated in Ampere-hours indicates
how long the battery may be used at given rated
until completely disharged
Theoritically, a 100 amp-hrs battery will furnish for
1 hr, 50 amp. will furnish for 2 hrs, or 20 amp for 5
hrs
For Airplane, a period of 5 hrs is established in
rating battery capacity, but, under actual service
condition, the battery discharges for a few minutes
or it may never be discharged if the generator pro-
vides sufficient charge
Multy engine airplane uses multy battery, connected
in parallel voltage equals to one battery, capacity
(current) is the sum of individual battery
 Factors affecting
Lead-Acid
battery life

Over discharging causes excess

sulphation

Too rapid charging or discharging

Resulting in overheating of the plates and
shedding of active material

Battery remains in a low or discharge condi

dition for a long period of time may be
permanently damaged
Note : The accumulation of shedded material causes shorting
of the plates and results in internal discharge
Lead-Acid battery
Testing Methods
The state of charged battery is indicated
by the density of the electrolyte and is
checked by a Hydrometer

Hydrometer scale with range of 1.100 to 1.300

indicates the level of density of electrolyte
The more density of electrolyte the higher the
hydrometer will float, therefore, the highest num-
ber on the scale (1.300) is at the lower end of the
hydrometer scale
In a new, fully charged battery (Acid 30%, water
70%), and 1.300 is a high state charged
 High charged
1.300 1.275

Medium charged
1.275 1.240

Low charged
1.240 1.200
Note :
When a battery is tested with hydro-
meter, the temp of electrolyte must
be taken into consideration
No correction when the temp between
700 F 900 F
If the temp greater than 900 F and
less than 700 F, it necessary to apply
correction factor provided by the
manufacture
Extreme care should be excercised
when doing a test, The sulfuric acid
will burn clothing and skin
Lead-Acid Battery
Charging Methods May be charged by 2 methods

1. Constant Voltage Charging

A motor generator is set with a constant
voltage
Regulated voltage forces the current through
the battery. In this method, the current at
start is high, but automatically tepers off,
reaching a value 1 amp when the battery is
fully charged
Charging requires less time and supervision
than does the constant current method
Constant voltage charging
A. Constant Voltage Charging
A battery may be charged by passing Direct Current
in a direction opposite to the discharge current of
battery
Because of internal resistance of battery, the voltage
of external charging source must be greater than the
open circuit voltage battery
For example :
The open circuit battery (fullycharge, 12 cells) is
+/- 26.4 v (12 x 2.2 v), thus, 28 volt is required to
charge. because the charging voltage drop in the
battery, caused by internal resistace batt (product
of the charging current and the internal resistance)
2. Constant Current Method
The current remains constant during charging
This method requires longer time
Toward the end of the process, presents the
danger of overcharging, if care is not exccercise
Note :
In the aircraft, the battery is charged by
Constant Voltage Method (DC current)
When the battery is being charged, it
generates an explosive mixture (hydrogen
and oxygen). The vent caps should be
loosened, no flames, sparks or other
source of ignition
Before connecting or disconnecting a
battery to the charge, always turn off
the power
Nickle-Cadmium
Batteries

Often referred to as Ni-Cad Battery

Low maintenance cost
Long service life
Short recharge time
Good starting capability
Excellent reliability

Construction
The cell is the basic unit Ni-Cad battery
The positif plates are made from nickle
hydroxide
The negative plates are made from Cadmium
hydroxide
The electrolyte used is 30% solution of potasium
hydroxide (KOH) in distilled water
 Operation of
Nickle-Cadmium
Cell

Charging Process
Negative plates lose oxygen and begin forming
Metallic Cadmium
Positive plates (nickle-hydroxide) becomes more
highly oxidised
This process continues untill the negative plates
only cadmium remains

Discharging Process
The chemical action is reversed during
discharged
The positive plates give up oxygen
Note :
Toward the end of charging cycle, the cells emit gas,
also will occurs if the cells are overcharged. It is
caused by decomposition of water in the electrolyte
- into hydrogen at the negative plates
- into oxygen at positive plates

During discharge, the plates absorb a quantity of

electrolyte

On recharge, the level of electrolyte rises, at full

charged,it will be at highest level water should be
added only when the battery is fully charged

Lead-Acid battery and Ni-Cad battery are intercha-

ngeable
 Servicing
Nickle-Cadmium
Batteries

Separate Storage/maintenance between Ni-Cad

and Lead-Acid battery.
- The electrolyte is chemical opposite to the
sulfuric-acid.
- fumes from lead-acid can contaminate the elec
trolyte in ni-cad battery.
- The equipments should be separated uses such
as: hand tools, syringes
The electrolyte of ni-cad battery is extremely
corrosive, use protective equipments
Severe arcing may result if a wire brush is used
to clean a battery. (use fiber brush)
 Should never be used acids, solvents or other
chemical solution to clean a battery
Additional water should be done after 3 or 4
hours after it has been fully charged
Ni-Cad battery should be serviced intervally base
on experience operating
If the battery is completely discharged, each cell
should be short circuited to obtain a zero poten-
tial cell balance before recharging the battery
this is called equalization
Accomplish charging :
- Use constant voltage until the charging current
to 3 amperes or less. Assure the battery temp.
not exceed 1000F
- Use constant current until the voltage reaches
the desire voltage
Basic Circuit Analysis and
Trouble shooting

Troubleshooting is the process of locating

causes for malfunctions or trouble in a circuit
Figures below are the most common sources
of open circuit
The open circuits can be located by visual inspection, but
many cases cannot be seen. In such cases, a meter must
be used

To locate this trouble

(open circuit), a
Voltmeter or an
Ohmmeter can be used

If a Voltmeter is used to locate the trouble, the

circuit must be closed
If an Ohmmeter is used to locate the trouble, the
circuit must be open
 If a voltmeter is
connected across the
lamp, the voltmeter
will read zero (because
no current flowing).

If a voltmeter is
connected by shunting
(parallel) the burned
resistor, allowing a
very small current to
flow (caused by high
resistance of voltmer)
But, the voltmeter will
read the battery voltage
 The ohmmeter is
placed across the
lamp, the value of
resistance is read
indicates that the
component has
continuity (not open)

The ohmmeter is
connected across the
resistor, it indicates
infinite resistance
(discontinuity)

Thus, the circuit

open has been located
by voltmeter or ohmmeter
Usually short circuit will
produce an open circuit by
opening the fuse or burning out
a circuit component

But in some cases, there may be

additional resistor which will
not allow the current to burn
the fuse or burn out component.
Thus, with one resistor shorted,
the circuit will still function
To locate the shorted
resistor while the circuit is
functioning :
Use Voltmeter connect-
ed acros any of resistors
-- Unshorted resistor : the
applied voltage will be in-
dicated on scale
-- Shorted resistor : the
voltmeter will show zero

Use Ohmmeter connect

ed across any resistor
(The circuit must be open)
-- Only the shorted resist-
or shows a zero reading
SWITCHES

Switches control the current flow in most aircraft

electrical circuits.

A switch is used to start, to stop, or to change the

direction of the current flow in the circuit.

Several type of switches :

1. Single-Pole single-throw (spst)
2. Single-pole double-throw (spdt)
3. Double-pole single-throw (dpst)
4. Double-pole double-throw (dpdt)
 1

Single-pole single-throw knife (spst) and

toggle switches.

Single-pole double-throw knife (spdt) and

toggle switches
 3

Double-pole single-throw knife (dpst) and

toggle switches

Double-pole double-throw knife (dpdt) and

toggle switches
Microswitches

Microswitches are usually pushbutton switches. They

are used primarily as limit switches to provide
automatic control of landing gears, actuator motors,
and the like.

The diagram below shows a normally closed

microswitch in cross section and illustrates how these
switches operate.

When the operating plunger is pressed in, the spring

and the movable contact are pushed, opening the
contacts and the circuit.
Cross section of a micronswitch.
Rotary Selector Switches
A rotary selector switch takes the place of several
switches.

When the knob of the switch is rotated, the switch

opens one circuit and closes another.

Ignition switches and voltmeter selector switches are

typical examples of this kind of switch.
Relays
Relays is used for heavy currents

A relay is connected in the circuit between the unit

controlled and the nearest source of power (or power
bus bar) so that the cables carrying heavy current
will be as short as possible.

A relay switch consists of a coil, or solenoid, an iron

core, and both fixed and movable contacts
Fixed-core relay
Movable-core relay
 Alternating Current
And Voltage

Adventages :
It can be transmitted over long distances
More readily and more economical than DC
AC Voltage can be increased or decreased by
means of transformer
Space and weight can be saved, especially motors
are smaller and simpler than DC devices (in most
ac motor no brushes are required)
CB will operate satisfactory under load at high
altitude, whereas arcing is so excessive on DC sys-
tem that CB must be replaced frequently
 AC and DC Compared

DC Current :
Flows constantly
in only one
direction
It changes
magnitude only
when the circuit
is opened or
closed
 AC and DC Compared

AC Current :
Changes direction
at regular inter-
vals
Increases in value
at a definite rate
from zero to a
maximum positive
strength, and de-
creases back to
zero Two effects take place in AC cct
Then, it flows in that do not occur in DC cct :
opposite directi- - Inductive reactance
on, similarly - Capacitive reactance
 Still remember ?,
That an electric curr-
ent flowing through
a conductor creates a
Generator magnetic field around
Principles the conductor?

But,
Whether a magnetic
field could create a
current flow in a
conductor?
How electric current be
created by a magnetic flug
Several turns of conductor are wrapped around a
cylindrical form
The ends of conductor are connected to form a com
plete circuit which includes a galvanometer
If a simple bar magnet is plunged into the cylinder,
the galvanometer can be observed to deflect in one
direction from its zero (center) position
This is the operation of the generator
 When a conductor
is moved through
a magnetic field,
an electromotive
force (emf) is in-
duced in the con-
ductor
The direction of
induced emf is de-
termined by the
magnetic lines of
force and the di-
rection the con
ductor is moved
through the mag-
netic field
 The generator
left hand rules
(not be confused
with left hand
rule used with
coil) can be used
to determine the
direction of the
induced emf :

1st finger pointed shows the direction of magnetic lines

of force (north to south)
Thumb pointed shows direction of movement conductor
through the magnetic field
2nd finger pointed shows direction of induced emf
See figure of previously slide

When two of these three factors are known, the third

may be determined by the use of this

When a loop conductor is rotated in a magnet field,

a voltage is induced in each side of the loop

The two sides cut the magnetic field in opposite

directions, although the current flow is continuous, it
moves in opposite directions with resfect to the two
sides of the loop

The value of an induced emf depends on three factors :

1. The number of wires moving through the magnetic
field
2. The strength of the magnetic field
3. The speed of rotation
Simple generator
The ends of the loop are con-
nected to two metal slip rings
(collector rings), C1 and C2
Current is taken from the col-
lector rings by brushes
Use the left hand rules, as
wire A moves up across the
field, a voltage is induced which
causes the current to flow
inward
As wire B moves down across
the field, a voltage is induced
which causes the current to
flow outward
DC Motor

It is a rotating machine whichTransforms

dc energy into mechanical energy

It consists of two principal parts :

1. Field assembly
2. Armature assembly
(as a rotating part in which current
carrying wires are acted upon by
magnet field
 Developing Torque

Current flows inward

on side A and outward
on side B.
The magnetic field
about B is clockwise,
about A is unclockwise
A force will develop
which pushes B down-
ward and A upward
The tendency of force
to produce rotation is
called torque
The right hand motor rule
can be used to determine
the direction a current
carrying wire

The amount of torque in

a coil depends upon several
factors :
The strenght of magne
tic field
The number of turns in
the coil
The position of the coil
in the field
Basic DC Motor
DC Motor Construction

Bearing

End frame
Field coils
Armature
 Type of
DC Motor

1. Series Motor
2. Shunt Motor
3. Compound Motor
1. Series DC
Motor

Any increase in current strengthens the magnetism

of both the field and armature
Because of the low resistance in the winding,
- Able to draw a large current.
- Produce a high starting torque, (as the series princi-
pal advantage)
The speed of series motor is dependent upon the load
Used for engine starter, raising or lowering L/G, Flaps
2. Shunt DC
Motor

The field winding is connected in parallel with the

armature winding
Resistance is high, the current is constant
The torque will vary only with the current through the
armature torque is less than developed by series motor
The speed varies very little with changes in load
Suitable for use when constant speed is desired and
when high starting torque is not needed
3. Compound DC
Motor

The starting torque is higher than shunt motor but

lower than the series motor
Variation of speed is less than series motor, but
greater than shunt motor
Cumulative compound motor is used in driving machine
which is subjected to sudden changes in load
Back E.M.F

28 volt dc motor, small resistance 0.1 ohm

and connected with 28 volt source, the current
will be : I = E I = 280 amperes (impractical)
R
During normal operation, is found 4 amperes
When the armature rotates in magnetic field, a
voltage is induced in its winding (called back or
counter e.m.f) opposites in direction to the
voltage applied from the external source
Faster armature rotates greater back emf
Motor may high current when starting, but as
the armature speed increases, the current flows
through the armature decreases
Types of Duty
Electrical motors are operated for
Various condition

Intermitten operation :
- operated for short period only. Then must
be allowed to cool before operated again.
If it is used for long period under full
load, motor will be overheated

Continuous operation :
May be operated at rated power for long
periods
 Inductance

When an alternating current flows through a coil of wire, the

rise and fall of the current flow, first in one direction,
and then in another, sets up an expanding and
collapsing magnetic field about the coil.

A voltage is induced in the coil which is opposite in

direction to the applied voltage and which opposes any
change in the alternating current

The induced voltage is called the counter electromotive

force or back e.m.f , since it opposes the applied voltage.

This property of a coil to oppose any change in the current

flowing through it is called inductance.
 Inductance
(abbreviated L)

The inductance of a coil is measured in henrys

The inductance depends on several factors :

- number of turns
- Cross sectional area of coil
- Material

Inductors may be connected in a circuit as a

resistors
@ Connected in series : LT = L1 + L2 + L3, etc
@ Connected in parallel : LT = 1___
1_ + 1_+ 1_
L1 L2 L3
Capacitance

The ability of an insulator to store

electrical energy in the form of
electrostatic fields
 Any two conductors separated by a nonconductor,
called a dielectric, (as a capacitor)
In an electrical cct, a capacitor serves as a reservoir
for electricity
When a capacitor is connected to a storage battery
and the switch is then closed, the plate marked B
becomes positively charged, and A plate negatively
charged
Current flow in the external cct moving from B to A
The current in the cct becomes zero as soon as the
difference in voltage of A and B becomes the same
as the voltage of battery.
If the switch is opened, the plates remain charged
The amount of electricity a capacitor can store
depends on several factors :
- Type of material of the electric
- Directly proportional to the plate area
- Inversly proportional to the distance between the plate
 Two metal plates are
placed close to each
other

At the instant the switch

is closed to battery po-
sition, the meter will
show a definite current
in one direction, but almost instantly will return to zero

If the battery is then taken out of the cct and the swt is
closed in the capacitor position, the meter shows mo-
mentary current surge, but in opposite direction

The energy is actually stored in the electric, or dielectric,

field between the plates
 Capacitance

A capacitor is constructed of two parallel

conducting plates separated by an insulator.

Capacitance is a measure of a capacitors

ability to store charge on its plates.

A capacitor has a capacitance of 1 farad (F) if

1 coulomb (C) of charge is deposited on the
plates by a potential difference of 1 volt
across its plates.

The farad is generally too large a measure of

capacitance for most practical electronic
applications, so the microfarad (106 ) or picofarad
(1012 ) is more commonly used.
 Capacitor
All capacitors consists of two metal plates
separated by an insulator. The insulator is
called dielectric. (e.g. polystyrene, oil or air)

Circuit symbol:

Dielectric
_
 Permittivity The ratio of the flux density to
the electric field intensity in the dielectric. A
measure of the dielectric will permit the
establishment of flux lines within the dielectric.

Relative permittivity Often called the dielectric

constant, it is the ratio of the permittivity of any
dielectric to that of a vacuum.

The number given to a material is based on the

same area and thickness as used in the vacuum
Material Relative permittivity
(Dielectric) (Dielectric Constant)
Vacuum 1
Air 1.0006
Polythene 2.3
Waxed paper 2.7
Mica 4.5 7.5
Glycerin 43
Pure water 80
Strontium titanate 310
Functions of Dielectrics

It solves the mechanical problem of

maintaining two large metal plates at
a very small separation without actual
contact.

Using a dielectric increases the maximum

possible potential difference between the
capacitor plates without allowing discharge.
Applications of capacitors

The capacitance is varied by

altering the overlap between
a fixed set of metal plates
and a moving set. These are
used to tune radio receiver.

Press the key on a computer

keyboard reduce the capacitor
spacing thus increasing the
capacitance which can be
detected electronically.
Condenser microphone
sound pressure changes
the spacing between a thin
metallic membrane and the
stationary back plate. The
plates are charged to a
total charge Q=CV.

A change in plate spacing will cause a

change in charge Q and force a current
through resistance R. This current
"images" the sound pressure, making this
a "pressure" microphone.
Capacitive touch-screens use a layer of capacitive
material to hold an electrical charge; touching the
screen changes the amount of charge at a specific
point of contact.
Electronic flash on a
camera

The battery charges up the

flashs capacitor over several
seconds, and then the
capacitor dumps the full
charge into the flash tube
almost instantly.
A high voltage pulse is
generated across the flash
tube.
The capacitor discharges
through gas in the the flash
tube and bright light is
emitted.
 Charging / discharging of capacitor
As a capacitor
becomes charged, the
current flow decreases
because the voltage RR
developed by the
capacitor increases
over time and opposes R
the source voltage. R

The charged capacitor is

the source of voltage for
the current flow. The
current will stop flowing
when the charges of the
two plates are again equal, RR
meaning that the capacitor
R
is completely discharged.
Voltage Rating of Capacitors

If the voltage applied

across the capacitor is too
great, the dielectric will
break down and arcing will
occur between the capacitor
plates.

The voltage rating of the

capacitor is the maximum
voltage that can be steadily
applied without danger of
breaking down the dielectric.
Capacitance Reactance (Xc)
Capacitance offers opposition to the flow of current.
This opposition is called Capacitance Reactance

Current = Voltage I= E
or
Capacitive Reactance XC

Xc = 1
2 x f x C

f = frequency in cps
C = capacity in farads
2 = 6.28
Problem:
A series circuit is assumed in which the impressed
voltage is 110 volts at 60 cps, and the capacitance of a
condenser is 80 mf. Find the capacitive reactance and
the current flow.

Solution:
To find capacitive reactance, the equation Xc =
1/(2 f C) is used. First, the capacitance, 80 mf, is
changed to farads by dividing 80 by 1,000,000, since
1 million microfarads is equal to 1 farad. This
quotient equals 0.000080 farad. This is substituted
in the equation and
 1
Xc = -------------------- Xc = 33.2 ohms reactance
6.28 x 60 x 0.000080

Find the current flow: =

E
I = ----
Xc

110
I = ----
33.2

I = 3.31 amperes.
 Type of
Capacitance

1. Fixed Capacitor
It has approximately constant capacitance
using insulator of :
- Paper, - Oil, - Mica, - Ceramic, - Electroly
tic capacitor

2. Variable Capacitor
 Examples of Capacitors

Paper, plastic, ceramic and

mica capacitors
Non-polarized types can be
connected either way round.
Electrolytic capacitors
Polarized types must be
connected so that there is
d.c. through them in the
correct direction.
Air capacitors
The capacitance is changed
by varying the interleaved
area.
 Variable Capacitor

A typical variable capacitor consists of two sets of plates.

One set is called the rotor and the other the stator. The rotor is
connected to the adjustment knob outside the capacitor.
The two sets of plates are close together but not touching.
Air is the dielectric in a variable capacitor.

As the capacitor is adjusted, the sets of

plates become more or less meshed,
increasing or decreasing the area of overlap
between the plates.
As the plates become more meshed,
capacitance increases.
As the plates become less meshed,
capacitance decreases.
 Capacitors in Series and Parallel

In series :

V = V1 + V2 + V3

1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3

V1 : V2 : V3 = 1/C1:1/C2:1/C3

Q = Q1 = Q2 = Q3

The resultant capacitance is smaller than the smallest

Individual one.
In parallel :

Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3

C = C1 + C2 + C3

Q1 : Q2 : Q3 = C1 : C2 : C3

V = V1 = V2 = V3

The resultant capacitance is greater

Than the greatest individual one.
TRANSFORMERS
 A transformer is a device that transfers electrical
energy from one circuit to another through
inductively coupled electrical conductors.

A changing current in the first circuit (the primary)

creates a changing magnetic field.

This changing magnetic field induces a changing voltage in

the second circuit (the secondary). This effect is called
mutual induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary circuit, electric

charge will flow in the secondary winding of the
transformer and transfer energy from the primary
circuit to the load connected in the secondary circuit
Transformer

A transformer changes electrical energy of a given

voltage into electrical energy at a different voltage
level.

It consists of two coils which are not electrically

connected, but which are arranged in such a way that
the magnetic field surrounding one coil cuts through
the other coil.

When an alternating voltage is applied to (across) one

coil, the varying magnetic field set up around that
coil creates an alternating voltage in the other coil
by mutual induction.
A transformer consists of
three basic parts, as shown in
figure 8-197. These are :
1. iron core which provides a
circuit of low reluctance
for magnetic lines of force,
2. a primary winding which
receives the electrical
energy from the source of
applied voltage,
3. and a secondary winding
which receives electrical
energy by induction from
the primary coil.
The ratio of the transformer
input voltage to the output
voltage is the same as the turns
ratio if the transformer is 100
percent efficient. Thus,

when 10 volts are applied to

the primary of the transformer
shown in A of figure 8-199, two
volts are induced in the
secondary.

If 10 volts are applied to the

primary of the transformer in B
of figure 8-199, the output
voltage across the terminals of
the secondary will be 40 volts.
The secondary induced voltage VS, of an ideal
transformer, is scaled from the primary VP by
a factor equal to the ratio of the number of
turns of wire in their respective windings:
if 10 volts and 4 amps (40 watts of power) are
used in the primary to produce a magnetic field,
there will be 40 watts of power developed in the
secondary (disregarding any loss).

If the transformer has a step up ratio of 4 to 1,

the voltage across the secondary will be 40 volts
and the current will be 1 amp.

The voltage is 4 times greater and the current is

one-fourth the primary circuit value, but the
power (I x E value) is the same
When the turns ratio and the input voltage are known,
the output voltage (E2) can be determined as follows:

E2 N2
-- = --
E1 N1

Where E1 is the voltage of the primary, E2 is the

output voltage of the secondary, and N1 and N2 are the
number of turns of the primary and secondary,
respectively.

E1N2
E2 = ----
N1
In figure 8-201 above, the schematic symbol for an iron
core transformer is shown. In this case the secondary is
made up of three separate windings.

Each secondary has a midpoint connection, called a

"center tap," which provides a selection of half the
voltage across the whole winding.

The leads from the various windings are color coded by

the manufacturer
 Types and construction

Power transformers
Core
Core form
form Shell forml for

Windings are wrapped around two Windings are wrapped around the
sides of a laminated square core. center leg of a laminated core.

Usually, windings are wrapped on top of each other to decrease flux leakage
and, therefore, increase efficiency.
Laminated steel cores
Types and construction
Power transformers used in power distribution
systems are sometimes referred as follows:
A power transformer connected to the output of a
generator and used to step its voltage up to the
transmission level (110 kV and higher) is called a unit
transformer.

A transformer used at a substation to step the voltage

from the transmission level down to the distribution
level (2.3 34.5 kV) is called a substation transformer.

A transformer converting the distribution voltage down

to the final level (110 V, 220 V, etc.) is called a
distribution transformer.
3-phase transformers
The majority of the power generation/distribution systems in
the world are 3-phase systems. The transformers for such
circuits can be constructed either as a 3-phase bank of
independent identical transformers (can be replaced
independently) or as a single transformer wound on a
single 3-legged core (lighter, cheaper, more efficient).
3-phase transformer connections

We assume that any single transformer in a 3-phase

transformer behaves exactly as a single-phase transformer.
The impedance, voltage regulation, efficiency, and other
calculations for 3-phase transformers are done on a per-
phase basis.

Four possible connections for

a 3-phase transformer bank
are:
1.Y - Y
2.Y -
3. -
4. - Y
1. Y-Y connection

The Y-Y connection

has very serious
Problems :

If loads on one of the

transformer circuits
are unbalanced, the
voltages on the phases
of the transformer
can become severely
unbalanced.
2. Y- connection:
More stable to
unbalanced loads since
the partially
redistributes any
imbalance that occurs.
3. -Y connection:

The same advantages

and the same phase
shift as the Y-
connection.
4. -
connection:

No phase shift, no
problems with
unbalanced loads
or harmonics.
Current Transformers
Current transformers are used in ac power supply systems to
sense generator line current and to provide a current

The current in the primary induces a current in the secondary by

magnetic induction.

The sides of all current transformers are marked "H1" and "H2" on
the unit base. The transformers must be installed with the "H1"
side toward the generator in the circuit.

The secondary of the transformer should never be left open while

the system is being operated, could cause dangerously high
voltages, and could overheat the transformer.

Therefore, the transformer output connections should always be

connected with a jumper when the transformer is not being used
but is left in the system.
 Transformer Losses
(Power Losses)

- Copper loss is caused by the resistance of

are subjected the conductor comprising the turns of the
coil
to copper and
iron losses - Iron loss is caused by two types :
1. Hysteris loss
The electrical energy required to
magnitize the transformer core, first in
one direction, and then in the other

2. Eddy current
The electrical current induced in the
transformer core by the varying magne-
tic field
NOTE : To reduce eddy current losses, core are made of laminations coated
with an insulation, which reduces the circulation of induced current
Filtering

To complete the rectification process so that the

ac voltage which are changed to an acceptable of
smooth dc voltage is called filtering

Any reactance which opposes a change in voltage

(or current) by storing energy and then releasing
this energy back to the circuit as a filter

Capacitor and Inductance may be used as a filter

When the current through the capacito or
inductor decrease, its energy stored will be
supplied into the current
Note :
Capacitors and inductors are combined in various way
to provide more satisfactory filtering as LC filter

Type of circuit :
- Inductors installed in series with load (has very high
impedance to ripple frequency)
- Capacitors installed in parallel with load (has very
low impedance to the ripple prequency)

The various type of combined filtering :

- L-type
- inverted L-type
- T-type
- -type