MEDICAL ELECTRONICS

Mr. DEEPAK P.
Associate Professor
ECE Department
SNGCE

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 UNIT 1

Introduction to Human
Physiological Systems and
Transducers

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 Objective
At the end of this Unit
You will learn
Physiological Systems of human
body
Bio medical Transducers and
Electrodes

DEEPAK.P
3
 Introduction to Biomedical
Engineering

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 Biomedical Engineering
Biomedical Engineering is the application of engineering
principles and design concepts to medicine and biology

The biomedical engineering provides electrical, electronic,

electro-optical, and computer engineering support to clinical
and biomedical applications.

Biomedical Engineering improves the field of healthcare

diagnosis, monitoring and therapy.

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 Medical Instruments

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 Biomedical Instruments
Classification of Biomedical Equipments

1. Diagnostic equipment
2. Therapeutic equipment
3. Clinical equipment
4. Laboratory equipment

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 Man- Instrument System

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 Components in Man Instrument system

Control feedback

Transducer Signal
Stimulus

conditioning Display
Transducer equipment

Transducer

Recording , data
processing and
transmission of data
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 Man Instrument system
Measurement in biomedical instrumentation can be divided
in to two
1. VIVO
Measurement is made on or within the human body

Eg . Device inserted in to the blood stream to measure PH of blood

2. VITRO
Measurement is performed outside of the body.

Eg . Measurement of blood PH from blood samples.

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 Bioelectric Potentials

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 Sources of Bioelectric potentials
The systems in the human body generate their on
monitoring signals when they carry out their functions.

These signals provide useful information about their

function.

Bioelectric potentials are actually ionic voltages produced

as a result of electro chemical activity of certain cell.

Transducers are used to convert these ionic potentials in to

electrical signals

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 Resting and Action potentials
Certain types of cells within the body , such as nerve and
muscle cells are encased in a semi permeable membrane.

This membrane permits some substances to pass through

while others are kept out.

Surrounding the cells of the body are the body fluids

These fluids are conductive solutions containing charged

atoms known as ions

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 Resting potentials
The principle ions are sodium(Na+) Potassium(K+) and
chloride(C-)

The membrane of excitable cells permit entry of Potassium(K+)

and chloride(C-) ions but blocks the entry of sodium(Na+)
ions.
So inside the cell is more negative than outside cell

This membrane potentials is called Resting potentials

This potential is measured from inside the cell with respect

to body fluids.
So resting potential of a cell is negative.
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 Resting potentials/Polarization
This resting potential ranging from -60mv to -100 mv.
Cell in the resting state is called polarized cell.

Cell Membrane

V -70 mV

Ground
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 Depolarization of cell
When a cell is exited, the membrane change its
characteristic.

The sodium ions are rushed in to the cell.

At the same time potassium ions try move from inside.

After a equilibrium state is reached, the sodium is

moved back to outside

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 Depolarization of cell

Na+
Cell Membrane
Na+ Na+
K+
K+
K+
Na+ K+

K+ Na+
K+

Na+ K+ K+
Na+
Na+

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 Action potentials

Cell Membrane

V 20 mV

Ground

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 Re Polarization
Cell comes from de polarized state in to polarized state is
called Re polarization.

Cell Membrane

V -70 mV

Ground
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 Resting and Action potentials

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 Propagation of Action potentials
When a cell is exited and generates an action potentials
ionic currents to flow.
This process excite neighboring cells or adjacent area of
the same cell

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 Physiological Systems in Human
body

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 Physiological systems of human body

In simple terms "Human Physiology" is the study of

the body and its functions in each of the different
systems in any living body.

Input System Output

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 Physiological Systems in the Human body
Vision Speech

Appearance
Hearing
Behavior
Smell
Expired air
INPUTS

Taste

Inspired air Body movements

OUTPUTS
Tactile sensation

Liquid intake Liquid wastes

Solid wastes
Food intake

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 Physiological systems of human body
There are 11systems in the body:
1. The Skeletal System Bones & joints
2. Muscular System Skeletal muscle
3. Nervous System Brain, spinal cord & nerves
4. Endocrine System Hormone-producing cells & glands
5. Cardiovascular System Blood, heart & blood vessels
6. Respiratory System Lungs & airways
7. Digestive System Organs of the gastrointestinal tract
8. Urinary System Kidneys, bladder and ureters
9. Reproductive System Male & female reproductive organs
10. The Integumentary System The skin & derived structures
11. Lymphatic & Immune System Lymphatic vessels & fluid

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 Physiology of Cardiovascular
system

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 Physiology
Physiology can be classified in to

1. Cell Physiology
Study of cells
2. Patho Physiology
Pathological Functions
3. Circulatory Physiology
Study of blood circulation
4. Respiratory Physiology
Study of breathing organs

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 Cardio Vascular system
Cardio vascular system can be viewed as closed hydraulic
system with 4 chamber pump.

Cardio Vascular system is mainly used for transportation of

oxygen, Carbon dioxide, numerous chemical compounds
and the blood cells.

Pump-----Heart

Flexible tubes---Blood vessels

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 Cardio Vascular system
In some part of the system diameter of the arteries are
changed to control pressure.

Pump(heart) is a isolated two stage synchronized chamber

1. The first stage is to collect blood from the system and

pump it in to 2nd stage.
2. The second stage then pump these blood to the system

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 Heart & Valves

Bicuspid/
Left Atrio-ventricular valve

Right Atrio-ventricular valve

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 Heart Layers
Heart wall consists of three layers

1. Pericardium
Outer most layer, keeps outer surface moist, prevents
friction
2. Myocardium
Middle layer, Main muscle of heart, made up of short
cylindrical fibres
3. Endocardium
Inner layer of heart, Provides smooth lining for blood flow

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 Heart Valves
Heart has 4 valves

1. Tricuspid/Right Atrio-Ventricular valve

Between Right A and V, Prevents blood flow from right V to A

2. Bicuspid/ left Atrio-Ventricular valve

Between left A and V, Prevents blood flow from left V to A

3. Pulmonary valve
At right ventricle, It has 3 cusps

4. Aortic Valve
Between left ventricle and aorta, It has 3 cusps

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 Cardio Vascular systems

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 Cardio Vascular System
One of the two stage pump(Right side) collect fluid from the
system and pump it through oxygenation system(Lungs).

Other side pump receives blood from oxygenation

system(Lungs) and pump blood to main hydraulic system.

Blood act as communication and supply network for all

parts of the body

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 Cardio Vascular system
Fluid contains fuel suppliers and waste particles are
transported to destination.

Fluid contain mechanism for rejecting foreign elements and

mechanism for repairing small system puncture.

Sensors are provided to detect the changes in the need of

suppliers, the build of waste material and out-of- tolerance
pressure in the system known as chemoreceptors, Pco2
sensors and baroreceptors respectively.

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 Cardio Vascular Circulation
The blood is carried out to the various parts of the body through
blood vessels.

There are three types of blood vessels

1) Arteries--- Thick, Carries oxygenated blood

2) Veins--- Thin, De-oxygenated blood

3) Capillaries---Smallest, Last level of blood vessels, 800000

km of capillaries

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 Cardio Vascular Circulation
Heart pumps blood through the pulmonary circulation to the lungs
and through the systemic circulation to the other parts of the body.
1) Pulmonary circulation

2) Systemic circulation

In pulmonary circulation, venous blood(de-oxygenated) flows

from right ventricle through pulmonary artery to lungs .
The arterial( oxygenated) blood flows to left atrium through
pulmonary veins.
In systemic circulation blood flows from left auricle to left
ventricle and it is pumped to aorta and its branches
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 Cardio Vascular Circulation

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 Respiratory system

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 Respiratory systems
It is the Pneumatic system.

A system that work with air pressure.

An air pump(diaphragm) which alternatively create negative

and positive pressures in a sealed chamber(Thoracic cavity).
Thoracic cavity sucked air in to and forced out to two elastic
bags(Lungs).
The lungs are connected to the external environment through a
pass way (nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and
bronchioles)

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 Respiratory systems

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 Respiratory systems
At one point , this passage is common with the tube that carries
liquid and solids to stomach.

A special valving arrangement interrupts the respiratory system

whenever solid or liquid passes through the common region.

The passage divides to carry air in to each bag.

In each bag , it is sub divided many times to carry air in to and

out of each of many tiny air spaces (pulmonary alveoli).

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 Respiratory systems
In case of nasal blockage , air input can be taken from mouth.

Oxygen is taken from the air and transferred in to blood.

Cabondioxide is transferred from blood to air.

The system has a number of fixed volumes and capacities.

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 Respiratory systems
Tidal volume

The volume inspired and expired during each normal breath

Inspiratory reserve volume

Additional volume that can be inspired after a normal

inspiration.

Expiratory reserve volume

Additional volume that can be expired after a normal

expiration.

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 Respiratory systems
Residual volume

Amount of air remaining in the lungs after all possible air has
been forced out.
Vital capacity

Tidal volume+ Inspiratory reserve volume+ Expiratory reserve

volume

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 Respiratory systems

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 Blood purification in the human body
The overall functioning of our body heavily depends on the
proper functioning of our blood.

We take toxins into our body daily and these toxins

disrupts the functions of our internal organs.

Regular detoxification of our blood is important

Detoxifying the blood and body helps to remove harmful

toxins from our body and improve the functioning of our
vital organs such as the kidney and liver

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 Blood purification in the human body
When our body has too much toxins, our vital organs
start to get damage and under-perform and we start to
develop symptoms of allergies, low immunity,
headaches, fatigue and several other health related
problems.

The lungs help remove carbon dioxide, the kidneys

remove water-soluble waste and the liver removes
fat soluble wastes and many other impurities from the
blood.

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 Blood purification by lungs
The un oxygenated (unpurified) blood comes into right
atrium of heart by superior and inferior vena-cava
which then passes to right ventricle, then to lungs by
pulmonary artery.

In lungs this blood gets oxygenated (purified) which

then goes into left chamber of heart from which blood
is passed to aorta and then circulated to whole body

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 Blood purification by lungs

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 Blood purification by lungs

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 Muscular System

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 Muscular System
The muscular system is the biological system of humans that
produces movement.

It permits movement of the body, maintains posture, and

circulates blood throughout the body.

The muscular system is controlled through the nervous

system.

Muscles provide strength, balance, Posture, movement and

heat for the body to keep warm.

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 Muscular System
More than 50% of body weight is muscle.

Muscle is made up of proteins and water

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 Muscular System
There are three distinct types of muscles: skeletal muscles,
cardiac or heart muscles, and smooth muscles.

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 Muscular System
Smooth muscle or "involuntary muscle" consists of spindle
shaped muscle cells found within the walls of stomach,
intestines, bronchi, uterus, ureters, bladder, and blood
vessels.

Smooth muscle cells contain only one nucleus.

Cardiac muscle is also an "involuntary muscle" but it is

striated in structure and appearance.

Like smooth muscle, cardiac muscle cells contain only one

nucleus.

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 Muscular System
Cardiac muscle is found only within the heart.

Skeletal muscle or "voluntary muscle" is anchored by

tendons to the bone and is used to effect skeletal movement
such as locomotion.

Skeletal muscle cells are multinucleated with the nuclei peripherally

located.

Skeletal muscle is called 'striated' because of the longitudinally

striped appearance under light microscopy.

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 Muscular System
Muscle is composed of muscle cells (sometimes known as
"muscle fibers").

Within the cells are myofibrils; myofibrils contain sarcomeres

which are composed of actin and myosin.

Individual muscle cells are lined with endomysium.

Muscle cells are bound together by perimysium into bundles

called fascicles.

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 Muscular System
These bundles are then grouped together to form muscle, and
is lined by epimysium.

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 Muscular System

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 Muscular System

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 Nervous systems

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 Nervous systems
The task of controlling various functions of body and
coordinating them in to a integrated living organism(human
body) is the function of Nervous system

It is the most complex system in the human body

It is the communication network in the human body.

It composed of Brain, Sensors, high speed communication

links ,spinal cord.

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 Nervous systems
It provides regulation of body functions and sensory
perception.

Functions of Nervous systems

1. Control of the body

2. Integration

3. Communication

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 Nervous systems
Its center is a self adapting processor(Brain).

Self adapting means --- If a certain section is damaged, other

sections can adapt take over the function of damaged sections

This processor has memory, computational power, decision

making capability.

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 Nervous systems
With the use of this processor , human can take decisions,
solve complex problems, create art, poetry and music, feel
emotions and integrate input information from all parts of
the body and produce output signals of meaningful
information.

Central computer has millions of communication lines( afferent

and efferent nerves) that bring sensory information and
transfer control information from brain.

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 Nervous systems

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 Nervous systems
This lines are not single lines but complicated networks.

Information signal are normally coded by means of electro

chemical pulses that travel along the nerves.

The output control signals are channeled to specific motor

devices(motor units of muscles)

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 Nervous systems
In addition to brain , a large number of simple decision making

g devices(Spinal reflexes) are present to control directly

certain motor devices from certain sensory inputs.

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 Divisions of Nervous systems
The human nervous system can be divided into three main parts:
1. Central nervous system (CNS)
*is composed of brain and spinal cord...*

2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

*is composed of all body nerves that lie outside of your
central nervous system...*

3. Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

*Controls the involuntary actions of your body organs...*

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 1. Central Nervous systems
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Structures of the CNS:
[1] Brain
[2] Spinal cord

The CNS coordinates and interprets information to

determine the best response

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 Anatomy of the Central Nervous systems

Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Brain stem

Spinal cord

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DEEPAK.P
 2. Peripheral Nervous systems
The primary role of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the

organs, limbs and skin.

The nerves that make up the peripheral nervous system are

actually the axons or bundles of axons from neuron cells.

The peripheral nervous system is divided into two parts:

The somatic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system

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 Somatic Nervous systems
The somatic system is the part of the peripheral nervous system

responsible for carrying sensory and motor information to

and from the central nervous system.
This system contains two major types of neurons:
Sensory neurons (or afferent neurons) that carry information

from the nerves to the central nervous system.

Motor neurons (or efferent neurons) that carry information from

the brain and spinal cord to muscle fibers throughout the body.

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 3. Autonomic Nervous systems
The autonomic system is the part of the peripheral nervous

system responsible for regulating involuntary (reflex/Un

intentional)body functions, such as blood flow, heartbeat,
digestion and breathing.

This system is further divided into two branches:

The sympathetic system regulates the flight-or-fight responses.

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 Autonomic Nervous systems
The "fight or flight response" is our body's primitive,
automatic, inborn response that prepares the body to "fight" or
"flee" from perceived attack, harm or threat to our survival.

Parasympathetic system helps maintain normal body

functions and conserves physical resources

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 Anatomy of the Nervous systems
Basic unit of nervous system is the neuron.

Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system.

Neuron is a single cell with a cell body.

It is sometimes called soma

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 Anatomy of the Nervous systems
Neuron cells are the information-processing units of the brain

responsible for receiving and transmitting information.

One or more I/P fibers branches are called dendrites

Long transmitting fiber is called axon

Each part of the neuron plays a role in the communication of

information throughout the body.

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 Anatomy of the Nervous systems

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 Anatomy of the Nervous systems
Neurons
Composed of:
a. Cell Body
Part that contains the nucleus
b. Dendrite(s)
Carries a nerve impulse towards the cell body
c. Axon(s)
Carries a nerve impulse away from the cell body (and
towards the dendrite of the next neuron)

Axons are also called nerve fibers.

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 Types of Neurons
The three basic types of idealized neurons include;

Bipolar, (Pseudo)
Uni polar
Multi polar neurons,

Typically these neurons are found in different places around

the body:

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 Types of Neurons

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 Types of Neurons
Bipolar Specialized sensory neurons for the transmission of
special senses.

As such, they are part of the sensory pathways for smell, sight,
taste and hearing functions.

The most common example are the bipolar neurons found in

the retina

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 Types of Neurons
(Pseudo) Unipolar

Many types of primary sensory neurons are Unipolar.

Multi polar Multi polar neurons constitute the

majority of neurons in the brain and include motor
neurons and interneuron's.

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 Sources of Biomedical Signals

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 Sources of Biomedical Signals

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 Bio- Potential Electrodes

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 Measurement of Bioelectric potentials
To measure bioelectric potentials , a transducer is required.

Electrical signals produced by various body activities are

used in monitoring / diagnosis

In order to measure and record potentials and, hence, currents

in the body, it is necessary to provide some interface

between the body and the electronic measuring apparatus.

.
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 Bio Potential Electrodes
Bio-potential electrodes carry out this interface function.

A transducer consists of two electrodes, which measure ionic

potential difference between two points.

The designation of the Bio potential waveform ends with

Gram.

The name of the instrument bio potential normally ends

with Graph

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 Bio Potential Electrodes
Propagation of action potential through different body tissues

produces final waveform recorded by electrodes

Electrical activity is explained by differences in ion

concentrations within the body (sodium, Na+; cloride, Cl;
potassium, K+)

A potential difference (voltage) occurs between 2 points with

different ionic concentrations

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 Electrodes Theory

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Metal Electrode
Equivalent circuit for bio-potential electrode

Electrolytes
Body
Vha=Electrode potential developed across interface

C=Charges at the Interface at the skin metal interface

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 Equivalent circuit for bio-potential with two
electrode

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 Bio Potential Electrodes
Bio-potential electrodes transduce ionic conduction to

electronic conduction so that bio-potential signals can be

obtained
They generally consist of metal contacts packaged so that they

can be easily attached to the skin or other body tissues

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 Classification of Electrodes

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 Bio Potential Electrodes
1. Micro Electrodes--- Bio electric potential near or within a
single cell
Metal TypeTip must be tungsten or stainless steel
Micro pipette---It is a glass micropipet with size of 1
micron, It is filled with electrolyte

2. Skin surface electrode Measure ECG,EEG,EMG

3. Needle electrode ---Penetrate the skin to record EEG

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 Microelectrodes
Used to measure bio-potential signals at the cellular
level

Due to small dimensions (mm), impedance levels are

high

So amplifier needs very high input impedance

Microelectrodes
METAL MICROELECTRODES
MICROPIPETTE ELECTRODES
 Surface electrodes
These are placed in contact with the skin of the subject

Early stages immersion electrodes were used.

A bucket of saline water is used

An improvement of immersion electrode is the plate

electrode.

Another old type electrode is suction type

Immersion electrodes
Surface electrodes
 METAL-PLATE ELECTRODES
Historically, one of the most frequently used forms of
bio-potential sensing electrodes is the metal-plate
electrode.

In its simplest form, it consists of a metallic

conductor in contact with the skin.

An electrolyte soaked pad or gel is used to establish

and maintain the contact.
METAL-PLATE ELECTRODES
 Floating electrodes
Conductive paste reduces effect of electrode slippage
and resulting motion artifact
 Needle electrodes
Unipolar electrode---Single wire inside a needle

Bipolar electrode---Two wires inside a needle

Mostly used for contacting with internal body tissues

(a) Insulated needle electrode .
(b) Coaxial needle electrode .
(c) Bipolar coaxial electrode .
(d) Fine -wire electrode connected to hypodermic needle,
before being inserted .
(e) Coiled fine -wire electrode in place
Needle electrodes
Implantable electrodes
ELECTRODE ARRAYS
ELECTRODE ARRAYS
 Transducers

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 Transducers
A transducer is necessary to convert one variable in to another
form

Used to measure physiological variables

Variable is a quantity that vary with time.

The term active and passive has different meaning when they
are applied to Transducers

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 Transducers
Transducer can be classified in to two
Active Transducer
Known principles is used to convert variables in to electrical
signal
Passive Transducer
It involves control of an excitation voltage or modulation of
a carrier signal

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 Principles used in Active Transducers
It can convert electrical signal in to physical variables and also
in reverse direction.

1. Magnetic Induction

2. Piezoelectric effect

3. Thermoelectric effect

4. Photoelectric effect

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 Passive Transducers
Utilize the principles of controlling a DC excitation or an AC
carrier signal.

It consists of a passive circuit element which changes it value

as a function of physical variables to be measured.

It cannot convert electrical signal in to physical variables

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 Principles used in Passive Transducers
Using Resistive element
1. Ordinary Potentiometer
a. Linear
b. Rotary
2. Strain gage
a. Un bonded
b. Bonded
c. Semiconductor strain gage
Using Inductive element
1. Variable reluctance Transducer
LVDT
Using Capacitive element

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 Transducers for Biomedical field
Force transducer

Photoelectric displacement transducer

Pressure Transducers

Flow transducers

Transducers with digital O/P

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 Transducers for Biomedical field
1. Resistive transducers - Muscle force and Stress (Strain guge),
Spirometry (Potentiont) , humidity, (Gamstrers), Respiration
(Thermistor)
2. Inductive Transducers - Flow measurements, muscle
movement (LVDT)
3. Capacitive Transducers - Heart sound measurement, Pulse
pick up
4. Photoelectric Transducers - Pulse transducers, Blood
pressure, oxygen Analyses
5. Piezoelectric Transducers - Pulse pickup, ultrasonic blood
flowmeter
6. Chemcial Transducer - Ag-Agfallas (Electrodes, PH electrode

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 pH Electrode

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 pH Electrode
This is a device for measuring the concentration of hydrogen

ions and hence the degree of acidity of a solution.

pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion

concentration.
pH=7 means a concentration of 1x10-7 moles per litre.

The most essential component of a pH electrode is a special,

sensitive glass membrane which permits the passage of

hydrogen ions, but no other ionic species.

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 pH Electrode
When the electrode is immersed in a test solution containing

hydrogen ions the external ions diffuse through the membrane

until an equilibrium is reached between the external and internal
concentrations.
Thus there is a build up of charge on the inside of the membrane

which is proportional to the number of hydrogen ions in the

external solution.
The potential difference developed across the membrane is in
fact directly proportional to the Logarithm of the ionic
concentration in the external solution.

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 pH Electrode
The relationship between the ionic concentration (activity) and the

electrode potential is given by the Nernst equation:

E = E0 + (2.303RT/ nF) x Log(A)
Where
E = the total potential (in mV) developed between the sensing and reference electrodes.
E0 = is a constant which is characteristic of the particular ISE/reference pair.
(It is the sum of all the liquid junction potentials in the electrochemical cell, see later)
2.303 = the conversion factor from natural to base10 logarithm.
R = the Gas Constant (8.314 joules/degree/mole).
T = the Absolute Temperature.
n = the charge on the ion (with sign).
F = the Faraday Constant (96,500 coulombs).
Log(A) = the logarithm of the activity of the measured ion.

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 pH Electrode

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 Agcl Electrode

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 Ag-Agcl Electrode

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 Ag-Agcl Electrode
A silver chloride electrode is a type of reference electrode,
commonly used in electrochemical measurements.

The silver/silver chloride reference electrode is a widely used

reference electrode because it is simple, inexpensive, very stable
and non-toxic.

Typical laboratory electrodes use a silver wire that is coated with

a thin layer of silver chloride either by electroplating or by
dipping the wire in molten silver chloride.

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 Ag-Agcl Electrode
The electrode functions as a redox electrode and the reaction is
between the silver metal (Ag) and its salt silver chloride (AgCl, also
called silver(I) chloride).

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