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Giant Molecules - Polymers
Large molecules
are called polymers
Polymers are built
from smaller
molecules called
monomers
Biologists call
them
macromolecules
2
Examples of Polymers
Proteins
Lipids
Carbohydrates
Nucleic Acids
3
Most Macromolecules are Polymers
Nucleic Acid
Monomer
4
Linking Monomers
Cells link monomers by a process
called dehydration synthesis
(removing a molecule of water)
Remove
H
H2O Forms
Remove OH
5
Breaking Down Polymers
Cells break down
macromolecules
by a process
called
hydrolysis
(adding a
molecule of
water)
Water added to split a double sugar
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Macromolecules in Organisms
Nucleic Acids
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Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates include:
Small sugar molecules
in soft drinks
Long starch molecules
in pasta and potatoes
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Monosaccharides:
Called simple sugars
Include glucose,
fructose, & galactose
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Monosaccharides
Glucose is found in
sports drinks
Fructose is found
in fruits
Honey contains
both glucose &
fructose
Galactose is called
milk sugar
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Isomers
Glucose &
fructose are
isomers
because
theyre
structures are
different, but
their chemical
formulas are
the same
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Rings
In aqueous (watery) solutions,
monosaccharides form ring structures
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Cellular Fuel
Monosaccharides
are the main
fuel that cells
use for cellular
work
ATP
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Disaccharides
A disaccharide is a
double sugar
Theyre made by
joining two
monosaccharides
Involves removing
a water molecule
(dehydration)
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Disaccharides
Maltose is
composed of 2
glucose molecules
Lactose is made
of galactose +
glucose GLUCOSE
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Polysaccharides
Complex
carbohydrates
Composed of many
sugar monomers
linked together
Polymers of
monosaccharide
chains
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Examples of Polysaccharides
Glucose Monomer
Starch
Glycogen
Cellulose
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Starch
Starch is an example of a
polysaccharide in plants
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Glycogen
Glycogen is an example
of a polysaccharide
in animals
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Cellulose
Cellulose is the most abundant organic
compound on Earth
It forms cable-like fibrils in the
tough walls that enclose plants
It is a major component of
wood
It is also known as dietary fiber
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Cellulose
SUGARS
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Dietary Cellulose
Most animals cannot derive nutrition
from fiber
They have
bacteria in
their digestive
tracts that can
break down
cellulose
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Sugars in Water
Simple sugars and double sugars dissolve
readily in water WATER
MOLECULE
They are
hydrophilic,
or water-
loving
SUGAR
MOLECULE
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Lipids
Lipids are hydrophobic water fearing
Do NOT mix with water
Includes
fats,
waxes,
steroids,
& oils
FAT MOLECULE
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Function of Lipids
Fats store energy, help to insulate the
body, and cushion and protect organs
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Types of Fatty Acids
Unsaturated fatty acids have less than
the maximum number of hydrogens
bonded to the carbons (a double bond
between carbons)
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Types of Fatty Acids
Single
Bonds in
Carbon
chain
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Triglyceride
Monomer of lipids
Composed of
Glycerol & 3
fatty acid chains
Glycerol forms
the backbone
of the fat
Organic Alcohol
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Triglyceride
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Fats in Organisms
Most animal fats have a high proportion
of saturated fatty acids & exist as
solids at room temperature (butter,
margarine, shortening)
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Fats in Organisms
Most plant oils tend to be low in
saturated fatty acids & exist as
liquids at room temperature (oils)
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Fats
Dietary fat consists largely of the
molecule triglyceride composed of
glycerol and three fatty acid chains
Glycerol
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Steroids
The carbon skeleton
of steroids is bent
to form 4 fused
rings Cholesterol
Cholesterol is
the base Estrogen
steroid from Testosterone
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Synthetic Anabolic Steroids
They are variants
of testosterone
Some athletes use
them to build up
their muscles quickly
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Proteins
Proteins are polymers made of
monomers called amino acids
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Four Types of Proteins
Storage
Structural
Contractile
Transport
37
20 Amino Acid Monomers
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Structure of Amino Acids
Amino Carboxyl
Amino acids have a group group
central carbon with
4 things boded to R group
it:
Amino group -NH3
Carboxyl group -COOH
Hydrogen -H Side
groups
Side group -R Serine-hydrophillic
Leucine -hydrophobic
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Linking Amino Acids
Carboxyl
Cells link amino
acids together to Amino
make proteins Side
Group
The process is
called dehydration Dehydration
synthesis Synthesis
Peptide bonds
form to hold the
amino acids
together Peptide Bond
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Proteins as Enzymes
Many proteins act as biological catalysts
or enzymes
Thousands of different enzymes exist
in the body
Enzymes control the rate of chemical
reactions by weakening bonds, thus
lowering the amount of activation
energy needed for the reaction
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Enzymes
Enzymes are globular proteins.
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Enzyme + Substrate = Product
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How the Enzyme Works
The primary
structure is
the specific
sequence of
amino acids in
a protein
Amino Acid
45
Protein Structures
Hydrogen bond
Pleated sheet
Polypeptide
Amino acid (single subunit)
Hydrogen bond
Alpha helix
47
Denaturating Proteins
Changes in temperature & pH can
denature (unfold) a protein so it no
longer works
Cooking denatures
protein in eggs
48
Changing Amino Acid Sequence
Substitution of one amino acid for
another in hemoglobin causes sickle-cell
disease
2 7. . . 146
1 3 6
4 5
(a) Normal red blood cell Normal hemoglobin
2 7. . . 146
1 3 6
4 5
(b) Sickled red blood cell Sickle-cell hemoglobin
49
Nucleic Acids
Store hereditary information
Contain information for making all
the bodys proteins
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Nucleic Acids
Nitrogenous base
(A,G,C, or T)
Nucleic
acids are
polymers of Phosphate
group
Thymine (T)
nucleotides
Sugar
(deoxyribose)
Phosphate
Base
Sugar
Nucleotide
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Bases
Each DNA
nucleotide has one
of the following
bases:
Thymine (T) Cytosine (C)
Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Adenine (A) Guanine (G)
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Nucleotide Monomers
Backbone
Nucleotides are
joined by sugars
& phosphates on
the side
Bases
DNA strand
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DNA
Two strands of
DNA join
together to form
a double helix Base
pair
Double helix
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RNA Ribonucleic Acid
Nitrogenous base
Ribose sugar
(A,G,C, or U)
has an extra
OH or
hydroxyl
group
Uracil
It has the
Phosphate
group
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Summary of Key Concepts
57
Nucleic Acids
58
Macromolecules
59
Macromolecules
60
End
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