Professional Documents
Culture Documents
References
Electrical power
( Dr\ S.L. Uppa )
1. Power stations .
2. Substations .
3. Busbars .
4. Primary T.L and secondary T.L .
Step Up Transformer Step down Transformer
Power Station
Transmission Line 1 TL2
S
11/500 500/220 220/66
kV kV kV
Busbars
Loads
66/11 11kV/380V
kV
BB
Condenser Cooler
Coal Burner
Boiler
Pump
Turbine Generator
CO2
Reactor Water
Condenser
Fuel rots (Uranium 235)
R L a
Relation between resistance
and temperature rise .
(R 2 R1 ) (T t 2 ) (T t 1 )
t
T R
The influence of skin effect
on resistance
Uniform distribution of current throughout
the cross-section of a conductor exists only
for D.C.
In A.C, as increased of frequency, the non-
uniformly of distribution of current becomes
more appearance . This case is called skin
effect.
The alternating flux induces higher
voltages acting on the interior
filaments than are induced on
filaments near the surface of the
conductor .
La Lb
Xa Xb
r
Za Zb rrr
r
Ia Ib
Definition of inductance
d (xI 2 r 2 ) dx wb / m
The flux linkages d of length are the product
of the flux per meter of length and the fraction of
the current linkage .
d ( x 2 r 2 ) d
( Ix 3 2 r 4 ) dx wbt / m
r
int ( Ix 3 2 r 4 ) dx ( I 8 ) wbt / m
0
Where, r 0
Assuming , r 1
0 4 107 H /m
int (I 2) 107 wbt / m
L int ( int I ) 0.5 107 H /m
Flux linkages between two points external
to an isolated conductor .
In the Fig. P1 and P2 are two points at distance D1
and D2 from the center of the conductor which
carries a current of (I) :
H x (I 2 x ) AT / m
B x (I 2 x ) wb / m 2
The flux linkages between P1 and P2 are:
D2
12 ( I
D1
2 x ) dx ( I 2 ) ln( D 2 D1 ) wbt / m
1 4
Where, r r1 e
1
The inductance due to current in conductor ( 2 ) is :
L 2 2 107 ln( D r 2)
=0.7411 log10 ( D r 2) mH / mile
If r1 r 2 r
L 4 107 ln( D r )
=1.4822 log10 ( D r ) mH / mile
Inductance between two points external one conductor is one-
half the total inductance of a single-phase line and is called the
inductance per conductor .
Flux linkages of one conductor in
a group
with distance
Let us determine , ( 1 p )1 the flux linkages of conductor,
due to I 1 including internal flux linkages and external
all the flux beyond point ( p ):
1 p 2 107 [I 1 ln(1 r1) I 2 ln(1 D12 ) I 3 ln(1 D13 ) .... I n ln(1 D1n )
+I 1 ln D1 p I 2 ln D 2 p I 3 ln D 3 p .... I n ln D np ]
However , I 1 I 2 I 3 .... I n =0
I n (I 1 I 2 I 3 .... I n 1 )
( D1 p D 2 p ..... Dnp )
p : is infinity for away
1 2 107 [I 1 ln(1 r1) I 2 ln(1 D12 ) I 3 ln(1 D13 ) .... I n ln(1 D1n )
+ ln D1 p (I 1 I 2 I 3 .... I n )] (5)
7
mn
(Daa Dab Dac ...Dam )(Dba Dbb ...Dbm )(Dna ...Dnm )
L x 2n 10 ln[ 2
] H /m
n (Daa Dab Dac ...Daa )(Dba Dbb Dbc ...Dbn )( Dna ...Dn n )
Where
L x = 2 10 ln( G.M.D G.M.R )
7
L Lx Ly
Example (1)
One circuit of a single phase transmission line is
composed of three solid wires ( 0.1 in ) . The return
circuit is composite of two ( 0.2 in radius ) wires . The
arrangement of conductors is shown in fig. . Find the
inductance due to the current in each side of the line
and the inductance of the complete line .
Solution
The G.M.D between side ( x ) and ( y ) is :
Ds 49 (r )2 (D12D13D14D17 )6 (2r )6
The inductive reactance of one conductor of a single-
phase two conductor line is :
x L 2 fL 2 f 0.7411 10 log( Dm Ds )
3
ra rb rc r D D
c b
D
Since, I a ( I b I c ) (7)
From equation ( 7 ) in ( 6 ) ,
a 2 107 ln[I a ln(1 r ) - I a ln(1 D )]
=2 107 I a ln( D r ) wbt / m
1
a
D13 D12
3 c b 2
D23
The flux linkages of ( a ) in position ( 2 ) , when ( b )
is in position ( 3 ) and ( c ) in position ( 1 ) , is :
1
c
D13 D12
3 b a 2
D23
The flux linkages of ( a ) in position ( 3 ) , when ( b )
is in position ( 1 ) and ( c ) in position ( 2 ) , is :
1
b
D13 D12
3 a c 2
D23
The average value of the flux linkages of ( a ) is :
a ( a1 a2 a3 ) 3
2 107
a ln[3 I a ln(1 r ) + I b ln(1 D12 D 23 D13 ) + I b ln(1 D12D 23D13 )]
3
I a ( I b I c )
2 107
a ln[3 I a ln(1 r ) - I a ln(1 D12 D 23 D13 )]
3
2 107
= ln[3 I a ln(1 r ) - 3 I a ln(1 3 D12 D 23 D13 )]
3
= 2 107 I a ln( 3 D12 D 23 D13 r )
= 2 107 I a ln( Deq . r )
Deq . D D D
3 p
ab
p
ac
p
cb
D A .B .C
p
sc
3
D q 2x c m 2
The electric field intensity is equal to the electric
flux density divided by the permittivity of the
medium.
q 2xk vm
Where
12
k k r ko , ko 8.854 10 F m
D k
Induced voltage is:
V dx
x
V q 2xk dx
r
= ( q 2k ) ln( x r )
The potential difference between
two points due to a charge
Consider a long straight wire carrying a positive
charge of [ q (c/m) ].
The positive charge on the wire will exert a repelling
force on a positive charge placed in the field.
The potential difference is independent of the path
followed.
Thus the instantaneous voltage drop between P1 and
P2 is:
D2 D2
V 12
D1
dx q 2 xk dx (q 2 k ) ln( D 2 D1 )
D1
V (1)
Capacitance of a two-wire line
Capacitance per unit length of the line is:
C q V F m (2)
From eq.(2) in eq.(1) we get
C 12 q V 12 2k ln(D2 D1 ) F m
The voltage between the two conductors of the two
wire shown in the fig.(3) can be found by computing
the voltage drop due to the charge (qa) on conductor
( a ) and assume that conductor ( b ) is uncharged
and then by computing the voltage drop due to the
charge (qb) on conductor ( b ) .
By the principle of superpose the voltage drop are
computed. We obtained:
V ab (q a 2 k ) ln( D ra ) (q b 2 k ) ln(rb D )
a r1 r2
D
Since qa = -qb for a two-wire line .
V ab (q a 2 k ) [ ln(D ra ) ln(rb D )]
(q a 2 k ) ln(D ra rb )
2
V
C ab q a V ab 2k ln( D ra rb )
2
F m
If r a rb r
C ab 2k 2ln(D r ) = k ln(D r ) F m
Sometimes it is desirable to know the capacitance
between one of the conductors and a neutral point
between them .
Thus the capacitance to neutral for the two-wire
line is twice the line-to-line capacitance
( capacitance between conductors ) .
The voltage across the line divided equally
between them .
Therefore,
C an C bn 2C ab 2k ln(D r ) F m
Capacitance of a 3-phase line
with equalateral spacing
A three identical conductors of radius ( r )
shown in the fig .(5) .
Thus the voltage Vab of the 3-phase line is:
V ab (1 2 k ) [q a ln(D r ) q b ln(r D ) q c ln(D D )] V
1
a
D13 D12
3 c b 2
D23
Similarly,
V ac (1 2 k ) [q a ln(D r ) q b ln(D D ) q c ln(r D )] V
V ab V ac (1 2 k ) [ 2 q a ln(D r ) (q b q c )ln(r D )] V
V ab 3 V an
V ab ( 3 2) 3 V an J ( 3 2) V an
3 V an [( 3 2) J (1 2)]
Similarly,
V ac 3 V an [( 3 2) J (1 2)]
V ab V ac 3 V an (4)
From ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) we get:
3 V an = (3q a 2 k )ln( D r )
V an = (q a 2 k )ln(D r )
C an q a V an
C an 2k ln(D r ) F m
Capacitance of a 3-phase line
with unsymmetrical spacing
In this condition , the problem of calculating
capacitance becomes more difficult .
In the usual untransposed line the capacitances of
each phases to neutral are unequal .
For the line shown in the following Fig.(7)
equations are found for for the three different parts
of the transposition cycle .
With phase ( a ) in position (1) , (b) in position (2) and
( c ) in position ( 3 ) .
V ab (1 2 k ) [q a ln( D12 r ) q b ln(r D12 ) q c ln( D 23 D 31 )] V
V ab V ac 3 V an
And
C n q a V an 2k ln( Deq r ) F m (I )
Effect of earth on the capacitance of
3-phase transmission lines
Let us imagine conductor of the same size and
shape as the overhead conductor lying directly
below the original conductor above the plane of the
ground .
If the earth is removed and a charge equal and
opposite to that on the overhead conductor is
assumed on the imagine conductor .
The electric flux between the overhead conductor
and this equipotential surface is the same as that
which existed between the conductor and the earth .
To apply the method of images to the calculation of
capacitance for a 3- phase , refer to fig.( 8 ) , we
assume that the line is transposed and that conductor
( a ) , ( b ) and ( c ) carry the changes (qa) , (qb) and
(qc) and occupy positions ( 1 ) , ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) , in
the first part of the transposition cycle .
The conductors with the image charges charge (-qa)
, (-qb) and (-qc).
Equations for 3-parts of the transposition cycle can
be written for the voltage drop from conductor (a) to
conductor ( b ) as determined by the three charged
conductors and their images .
With conductor ( a ) in position ( 1 ) , ( b ) position (
2 ) and ( c ) in position ( 3 ) .
V ac (1 2 k ) [q a (ln( D12 r ) ln( H 12 H 1 )) q b (ln(r D12 ) ln( H 2 H 12 ))
q c (ln( D 23 D 31 ) ln( H 23 H 31 ))] V
Deq D D D3 p
ab
p
bc
p
ca D A .B .C
p 3
sc
D p
ab 4 Dab Dab Dba Dba A 2 r .Da a
D 4 Dbc Dbc Dcb Dcb
p
bc B 2 r .Db b
IS IR (6.1a )
V S V R ( R jX L )I R (6.1b )
V R Z I R
V SX V R I R R cos R I R X L sin R
V SY I R X L cos R I R R sin R
V S =[ (V R I R R cos R I R X L sin R ) 2
V S V SX V R I R R cos R I R X L sin R
100
300 103
R
3 197 2
2.58 ohms
X L L length
3
1 1.7 10
= 314 (1 4 logc ) 107 15 103
2 5
=5.75 ohms
V S V R I R R cos R I R X L sin R
= 6,350 + ( 197 2.58 0.8) + ( 197 5.75 0.6)
= 6,350 + 1057
= 7,407 V per phase
= 12,780 V line
( R cos R X L sin R ) V S V R
Regulation =I R =
VR VR
1,057
= 16.7 %
6,350
Medium Transmission line
It has been mentioned in section 6.2 that the
capacitance of medium length lines is significant.
Vs Vr I Z
Y
Vr ( Ir Vr ) Z
2
Z Y
(1 )Vr Z Ir (6.14.1)
2
Y
Icd Vs
2
Z Y Y
[(1 )Vr Z Ir ]
2 2
Sending-end current,
Is I Icd
Y Z Y Y
Is Ir Vr [(1 )Vr Z Ir ]
2 2 2
Z Y2 Z Y
( Y+ ) Vr ( 1 ) Ir (6.14.2)
4 2
Vr V r jQ
cos r 0.8 , sin r 0.6
Ir I r cos r j I r sin r
=250 0.8 j 250 0.6=200 j 150
Fig.(6.16):Phasor diagram
Sending-end line voltage ,
=65450 3 113400 v
=113.4 kv
Phase difference between Vs and Is ,
s 5 11 ( 35 57)
41 8
Sending-end power factor ,
Transmission efficiency ,
Power output
T
Power output Power loss
36 10 6
36 10 463.2 10
6 3
3V r I r cosr
T
3V s I s coss
36 10 6
=
3 65450 247 0.7532
=0.986 or 98.6 per cent
Calculation by nominal method
The nominal circuit for the line is shown in Fig.( 6.14)
Y
Iab Vr
2
j 39.3 106 60 103 =j 2.35
I Ir Iab
(200 j 150) j 2.35
=200 j 147.65
[(200)2 (147.65)2 ]1 2 tan 1 ( 147.65 200)
245.6 36 26
Voltage drop per phase ,
Vs Vab I Z
60 103 5136 j 5910
65136 j 5910
1
[(65136) (5910) ] tan (5910 65136)
2 2 12
65390 5 11 v/phase
Sending-end line voltage ,
=65390 3=113.2 kv
Y
Icd Vs
2
6
j 39.3 10 (65136 j 5190)
= 0.232+j 2.557
Sending-end current ,
Is Ir Icd
(200 j 150) 0.232+j 2.557
=199.8 j 145
1
[(199.8) (145) ] tan ( 145 199.8)
2 2 12
247 35 57 A
s 5 11 ( 35 57)
41 8
Sending-end power factor ,
=463.6 Kw
Transmission efficiency ,
36 106
T
36 106 463.6 103
0.9873 or 98.73 per cent
Example
A three-phase , 50 Hz , 150 km line operates at 110 Kv
between the lines at the sending-end. The total inductance
and capacitance per phase are (0.2 H) and (1.5 F) .
Neglecting losses calculate the value of receiving-end load
having a power factor of unity for which the voltage at the
receiving-end will be the same as that at the sending-end .
Assume one-half of the total capacitance of the line to be
concentrated at each end .
Solution
The circuit for the given line is shown in fig.(6.17) . It is a
nominal representation .
110 1000
V r V s 63510 v
3
Inductive reactance per phase ,
X L 2 fL 2 3.14 50 0.2 62.8
Y 2 fC 2 3.14 50 1.5 10 6
I =Ir Iab
Ir j 14.96
Sending-end voltage ,
Vs Vr I Z
=V r j 0 (Ir j 14.96)( j 62.8)
=(V r -939.5)+j 62.8 I r
10862
Ir 173 A
62.8
General Network
Constants
Introduction
A network having two input and two output terminals is
known as a two-port network . It may also be called a two-
terminal-pair network or quadriple network . In fig.(1 .
a,b) represent the input pair terminals and ( c,d ) the output
pair terminals . The two pairs of terminals are usually
shown to be enclosed in a box .
V s AV r BI r
(1.1)
I s CV r DI r
V s A B V r
D I r
(1.2)
I s C
A B
The matrix C
D is called the transfer matrix or
transmission matrix of the network
Cascaded network
The overall A , B , C , D constants for several 2-port
networks connected in cascade ( or chain arrangement )
can be found out easily . Fig.( 2 ) shows two cascaded
networks , and one that is the equivalent of both . The
constants of the two component networks are A1 , B1 , C1 ,
D1 and A2 , B2 , C2 , D2 . Let the constants for the
equivalent network be A0 , B0 , C0 , D0 .
V a A2 V r B 2 I r
(2.1)
I a C 2 V r D2 I r
V s A1 V a B1 I a
(2.2)
I s C 1 V a D1 I a
Substituting the values of Va and Ia from the first
set of equations in the second set , we have :
V s A1 ( A2 V r B 2 I r ) B 1 (C 2 V r D 2 I r )
( A1 A2 B1C 2 ) V r ( A1B 2 B1D 2 ) I r (2.3)
I s C 1 ( A2 V r B 2 I r ) D1 (C 2 V r D 2 I r )
(C 1 A2 D1C 2 ) V r (C 1B 2 D1D 2 ) I r (2.4)
The sending-end voltage and current for the
equivalent network with constants A0 , B0 , C0 , D0 are
given by :
V s A0 V a B 0 I a
(2.5)
I s C 0 V a D0 I a
V s A1 B1 V a
(2.7)
I s C 1 D1 I a
V a A2 B 2 V r
(2.8)
I a C 2 D2 I r
Combining these equations ,
V s A1 B1 A2 B 2 V r
C
D2 I r
(2.9)
I s 1
C D1 2
I ss D I rs (3.2)
Now , the voltage V is applied to the output terminals and
the input terminals are short circuited fig.( 3 ,b ) . The
directions of flow of currents at the input and output
terminals are reversed and the sending-end voltage Vs
becomes zero. Equation ( 1.1 ) become :
0 AV BI r
AV
I r (3.3)
B
I s CV DI r (3.4)
Since the network is passive , by the reciprocity theorem ,
I s I rs (3.5)
Fig.( 3 )
Combining equations ( 3.1 ), ( 3.3 ) , ( 3.4 ) and ( 3.5 ) we
get ,
DAV
I rs CV
B
V DAV
CV
B B
Dividing both the sides of the above equation by -V/B we
get ,
AD BC 1 (3.6)
V s 1 Z V r
I (4.2)
s
I 0 1 r
By comparing these equations with the general equations
(1.1) and (1.2) the general constants for the series
impedance network can be written as :
A 1 B Z
(4.3)
C 0 D=1
1 Z
The transfer matrix for the network is
0 1
Shunt admittance circuit
Fig,( 5 ) , shows a transmission network with a shunt
admittance Y . Such a network may represent the
magnetizing current circuit of a transformer or a shunt
capacitor .
V s V r
(5.1)
I s Y Vr I r
V s 1 0 V r
(5.2)
I s Y 1 I r
Hence,
A 1 B 0
(5.3)
C Y D=1
Half T network
A half T network is shown in fig.( 6 ) .
V s (1 Z Y ) Z V r
(6.1)
I s Y 1 I r
Hence,
A 1 Z Y B Z
(6.2)
C Y D=1
Matrix method , The half T network can be considered
as the cascade connection of two sections . One section is
a series impedance Z and the other a shunt admittance Y .
The overall constants are obtained from the matrix product
of the transfer matrices of each section in the correct order.
V s 1 Z 1 0 V r
I s 0 1 Y 1 I r
(1 Z Y ) Z V r
Y 1 I r
Overhead lines and its
mechanical
characteristics
Introduction
An overhead line comprises mainly of i ) conductor, ii )
supports , iii ) insulators and pole fittings . The function of
overhead lines is to transmit electrical energy , and the
important characteristics which the line conductors must
have are :
a) High electrical conductivity .
b) High tensile strength .
c) Low density .
d) Low cost .
a. Wooden poles .
b. Steel tubular poles
c. Reinforced concrete poles .
d. Steel towers .
Fig.(1):Singlephase single-circuit
Spacing between the
conductors
Where,
Vkv : is voltage in kilovolts .
d : is diameter of conductor
in inches .
w : is weight of conductor
in lb. per foot run .
D : is sag in feet .
Sag-tension calculations for the
overhead lines
The theory of sag tension calculation is based on the fact
that when a wire of uniform cross-section is suspended
between two points at the same level , the wire sags down
and assumes the shape of a " catenary " .
The line between the two points must be so teasioned that .
Fig.(9):Representation of sag in the conductor suspended between two points
Let , ( L ) be the length of the conductor POQ ,
suspended between the supports P and Q at the same
level and having a distance L between them .
Let , O be the lowest point of the catenary so formed ,
D be the maximum sag , and let :
w : be the weight of the conductor per unit length .
T : be the tension at any point A of the conductor .
To : be the tension at point O of the conductor , which is
taken as origin .
S : be the length of the conductor OA .
2
W I W 2 l2
D TQ T 0
8 T0 8 T0
Effect of ice covering and wind
over the line
Under the severest conditions of ice covering and wind ,
the stress over the line is increased to the maximum . The
ice covering over the conductor increase the weight of the
conductor per unit length . Let , ( d cm ) be the diameter
of the conductor and ( r cm ) be the radial thickness of ice.
4
Sectional area of the ice d2
= (d 2 r )
2
4 4
= [ (d 2 r )2 d 2 ]
4
= [ d 2 4 r 2 4 d r d 2 ]
4
= r ( d r )
Density of ice 0.915 g / cm3
( d 2 r )
1 sq.m
100
( d 2 r )
Pw 33.7
100
0.337 ( d 2 r ) Kg
Fig.(11):Representation of resultant force acting on the
conductor .
So , the resultant force Wi acting on the conductor from
figure , is given as :
W i (w w i ) P 2
w
2
Overhead line over supports
different level
Consider an overhead line POQ , supports over the
supports at points P and Q .
The difference between supports level is h as shown in
figure(12).
Fig.(12)
Let , the different between the supports P and Q be h .
The line POQ forms the parts of the catenary , " POP ".
Let the horizontal distance between O and support Q be
(x).
So , distance of support P from O l x
l T h
x
2 l w
Example
An overhead line has a span of 220 meters , the lines
conductor weights 684 km . per 1,000 meters . Calculate the
max. sag in the line , if the maximum allowable tension in the
line is 1,450 kg
Solution
2 l 220 m
W l
Maximum sag = 8 T T 0 1,450 Kg
0