Solidification

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Solidification

Embriyo NucleiDendriteCell.Grain.Growth

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 Solidification

On cooling just below Tm solid becomes stable

But solidification does not start
E.g. liquid Ni can be undercooled 250 K below Tm
t
Solid stable Liquid stable

G
Solid (GS)

G ve
G

T Liquid (GL)
G +ve
Tm
T
T - Undercooling 8/14/2017 1:06 AM 4
Nucleation

Solidification = Nucleation + Growth

Liquid solid Solid solid

walls of container, inclusions inclusions, grain boundaries,
dislocations, stacking faults

Nucleation

Homogenous Heterogenous

The probability of nucleation occurring at point in the parent phase is same

throughout the parent phase
In heterogeneous nucleation there are some preferred sites in the parent
phase where nucleation can occur
 Nucleation
Neglected in L S
Homogenous nucleation transformations

Free energy change on nucleation

Reduction in bulk free energy increase in surface energy increase in strain energy

G (Volume).( G ) (Surface). ( )

4 3
G r .(Gv ) 4r .( )
2

3

Gv f (T )
r3
r2

1
Solidification

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Heterogeneous nucleation
Consider the nucleation of from on a planar surface of inclusion
Interfacial Energies

Alens
Created

Created Acircle

Acircle
Cos Lost

G (Vlens )Gv (A lens ) ( Acircle ) ( Acircle )

 Nucleation

Rate of nucleation
G*hetero / G*homo

1
G*hetero (0o) = 0
G*hetero (180o) = G*homo
no barrier to nucleation
0.75 no benefit
G*hetero (90o) = G*homo/2
0.5

Cos
0.25
Complete wetting Partial wetting No wetting
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
(degrees)
Solidification

Growth
Growth process decides crystallographic structure of solid
Rate of growth depends on the constraint by neighbouring nuclei

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Solidification

Pure metal Alloy Nucleating agent

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Solidification

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 The quality of casting depends on the method of melting.
Molten metal is prevented from oxidation by covering the
molten metal with fluxes
Before pouring into the mould the metal has to be in
liquid state.
A furnace is used to melt the metal.
Different furnaces are employed to melt ferrous and non-
ferrous metals.
Heat in the furnace is created by combustion of fuel,
electric arc etc.
A furnace contains high temperature zone where the
metal to be melted is placed

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Furnace selection depends on,
The type of metal,
The maximum temperature required
Rate and the mode of molten metal delivery
Initial cost of the furnace
Fuel cost
Melting and pouring temperatures
Quantity of metal to be melted
Method of pouring required
Cost of furnace repair and maintenance
Cost of operation

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 Cupola furnace
Air furnace
Rotary furnace
Electric furnace
Open hearth furnace
Cupola Furnace:
Cupola is used for melting scrap metal or pig iron used in
the production of iron casting
Cupola is available in different sizes
Cupola can be employed for as long as needed for
producing a given amount of iron
Fuel used is generally a good grade low sulphur coke,
anthracite coal or carbon briquettes

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1. Preparation of cupola
2. Lighting the fire in coke bed
- Through tap hole with electric or
dry wood pieces
3. Charging the cupola
- C-F-M
- 4% Fluxes- CaCO3, NaCO3, CaC2
- M:C 4:1 to 12:1
4. Melting
5. Slagging and molt tapping
6. Dropping down the cupola

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1. Well - molten metal collector
2. Combustion zone (Superheating/ oxidizing
zone)
A temperature of about 1540C to 1870C
is achieved in this zone. Few exothermic
reactions takes place in this zone these are
represented as:
C + O2 CO2 + Heat
Si + O2 SiO2 + Heat
2Mn + O2 2MnO + Heat
3. Reducing zone
The temperature falls to about 1200C
CO2 + C (coke) 2CO + Heat
4. Melting zone
3Fe + 2CO Fe3C + CO2

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5. Preheating zone
The main objective of this zone is to
preheat the charges from room
temperature to about 1090C before
entering the metal charge to the melting
zone.
CO2, CO, N2 expelled gases maintain this
temperature
6. Stack
The empty portion of cupola above the
preheating zone is called as stack. It
provides the passage to hot gases to go to
atmosphere from the cupola furnace.

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 It is simple and economical to operate.
A cupola is capable of accepting a wide range of materials
without reducing melt quality. They therefore play an important role
in the metal recycling industry
Cupolas can refine the metal charge, removing impurities out of the
slag.
Cupolas are more efficient and less harmful to the environment
than electric furnaces.
The continuous rather than batch process suits the demands of a
repetition foundry.
High melt rates
Ease of operation
Chemical composition control
Efficiency of cupola varies from 30 to 50%.
Less floor space requirements comparing with those furnaces with
same capacity.

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 Since molten iron and coke are in contact with each other, certain
elements like Si, Mn are lost and others like Sulphur are picked up.
This changes the final analysis of molten metal.
Close temperature control is difficult to maintain

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 Combustion carried out using preheated blast of air
Preheating by cupola stack air or external air pre heater
Combustion improvement and lesser coke consumption
Efficient but maintenance problems occur

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4.

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