Structure of Language

phonemes: basic speech sounds

morphemes: smallest unit of language that
contains meaning
surface structure: the words and phrases
comprising a particular sentence
deep structure: the underlying meaning of a
sentence
 Rules of Language
grammar: a system of rules that enable us
to speak and understand
semantics: rules we use to derive meaning
from morphemes
syntax: rules we use to order words into
sentences
 Mental Imagery
An image is a mental representation of a
sensory experience.
We use imagery as an aid in conceptualizing
and solving problems.
Images allow us to use concrete forms to
represent complex and abstract ideas.
 Concepts
concept: A mental category for classifying
objects, people, or experiences.
prototype: A mental model containing the
most typical features of a concept.
idealized cognitive model: Our conceptions
of events as we expect to typically find
them.
 Problem Solving
problem representation: interpreting or
defining the problem
select a solution strategy that best suits the
problem
 Possible Solution Strategies
trial and error
information retrieval: recovery of
information from LTM is all that is
necessary
algorithm: systematical evaluation of all
possible solutions to a problem
heuristics: rules of thumb strategies for
problem solving
 Heuristics
hill climbing: each step moves
progressively toward the final goal
subgoals: creation of intermediate and
more manageable goals
means-end analysis: reducing discrepancy
between current and desired states
 Heuristics
working backwards: moving from the
desired state to the current state
availability: basing our judgments on the
availability of information in our memories
representativeness: judging the likelihood
of things in terms of how well they seem to
represent particular prototypes
 Obstacles to Problem Solving
an individuals level of motivation
set: The tendency to perceive and to
approach problems in certain ways.
functional fixedness: The tendency to
perceive only a limited number of uses for
an object.
 Obstacles to Problem Solving
confirmation bias: The tendency to look for
evidence in support of a belief and to ignore
evidence that would disprove a belief.
Improving Problem Solving Ability
tacit of elimination: Possible solutions are
evaluated according to appropriate criteria
and discarded as they fail to provide a
solution.
visualization: Concepts are drawn,
diagrammed, or charted so that they can be
better understood.