METALS

Composition and Microstructure

Ferrous Metals and Alloys
Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys
Specifications and Proof Testing
Corrosion
Composition and
Microstructure
Metal: element that readily loses
electrons to form positive ions,
characterized by high electrical
conductivity and malleable
Alloy: combinations of metals in a
crystalline structure
Structure of Metals
Microstructural Different from
properties determine Covalent and Ionic
all of the material Bonds
properties of metals
and alloys.
Alloying Structure
3-D lattice in metalic bonds provides
opportunity for other element to occupy
some of the positions.
or for small element to enter the lattice
Interstitial Alloy
Between atomic
lattice location
< 60% of the size
of the lattice atoms
only a small % can
fit interstitially
For Transition metals
only a few fit
H, B, C, N
Substitutional Alloy
Replacing elements in
the lattice
+ 15% radius of lattice
atoms
large percentage is
possible
Alloys may contain both
interstitial and
substitutional elements
Forming a Crystalline
Structure
Liquid: large degree of disorder
Freezing Point: order begins to form
Grain Initiation: initiation energy
Solidification: ordered lattice structures form
Grain Boundary: separate lattices collide
FCC:BCC or FCC:FCC with different angle
Forming a Crystalline
Structure
Grain Structure:
each grain has its
own lattice structure
(FCC, BCC, HCP).
Introduction to Steel
Production
Commercial Forms
Applications
Microstructure
Strengthening Mechanisms
Corrosion
Metal Processing
Crushing and Calcining, or Separation
Extraction
Smelting
Ore is melted and separated in solution
Electrolytic processing
electric furnace or process is used to separate
metal
Leaching (liquid processing)
metal is recovered from leachate
Ferrous Metals
principle element is iron, cast iron,
steel, wrought iron.
Metals come from ore, "minerals" ore
consists of metal and gangue (valueless
extra)
Mining
open pit
underground
Refining the Metal
Refining the Metal
oxidizing impurities
distillation
chemical agents
electrolysis
Iron Production
Blast Furnace
Reduces iron ore
to metal
Separates metal
from impurities
Molten Iron
Slag
Processing of Virgin Steel
1) first step in reducing iron ore,
2) separates impurities
3) absorbs carbon (leaves 2.5 - 4.5 %
carbon)

End product is cast in bars, "pigs".

Ferrous Metals

Pig Iron
Iron ore is combined with coke, and
limestone (fluxing agent). Blasts of
hot air are forced through the
material to ignite the coke and melt
the iron ore. The impurities in the
iron are absorbed by the limestone
and forms blast furnace slag.
Forms of Ferrous Alloys
Cast Iron
cast iron is pig iron is any other shape.
Remelted and cast into desired shape.
Malleable Cast Iron
annealed (heating then slow cooling to
encourage refined grains and soften
mechanical properties, removes internal
stresses, removes gases) cast iron that has
been made more ductile and formable.
Forms of Ferrous Alloys
Wrought Iron
a form of iron that contains slag, and
virtually no carbon. making it workable
when it is hot but hardens very rapidly
when cooled rapidly.
Ingot Iron
low carbon steel or iron cast from a molten
state.
Forms of Ferrous Alloys
Steel
Iron - Carbon alloy which is cast from a
molten mass in a form which is malleable.
Carbon steel is steel with less than 1.5%
carbon. Alloy steel is steel which has
properties controlled by elements other
than carbon.
Steel has the best structural properties of
these materials
Carbon Steels
Carbon steels have between .008 and 1.7
percent C (most are between 0.1 and 0.8%)
Carbon may be substitutional or interstitial
depending upon the amount present
Alloys with greater than 1.7 percent carbon
become very brittle and hard, i.e. cast iron
properties.
Phase Diagrams
Phase Diagrams relate the
composition & temperature
to the
crystalline structure (phase)
Inverse Lever Law
determines the percentage of each
crystalline phase
Two Component (Binary) Phase Diagram for
completely soluble elements or compounds

Melting
Temperature, C

Liquid Temperature of A

Liquid +
Solida

Solid a
Components Melting Temperature of B
Percent A by weight 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent B by weight 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Two Component (Binary) Phase
Diagram: Ni - Cu
1700
Nickel - Copper Alloy
1600
Liquid Liquidus Line
Temperature, C

1500 1455C
1400

1300
Liquid +
1200 Solida

1100 Solidus Line Solid a

1084C
1000
Percent Ni by weight 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent Cu by weight 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
 Binary Phase Diagram for
insoluble elements or compounds
Liquid A + B
Temperature. C

Liquid + A
Liquid + B

Solid A + B

Composition of A
Composition of B

Actual atomic form will depend

on the composition of formation
(will discuss later for steel)
Definitions
Eutectic Reaction

Eutectic Point

Eutectic Solid
 Water - NaCl Phase Diagram
15
10
5
Liquid Brine (Water + Dissolved NaCl)
Temperature. C

0
-5
Eutectic Point
-10
Salt +
-15 Ice + Brine Brine
-20
-25 Ice + Salt
-30
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-21 oC (-5.8F) Weight Percent NaCl 23.3%
Binary Phase Diagram for
partially soluble elements or compounds

Liquid
Temperature. C

Eutectic Point
a + Liquid b + Liquid

b
a

Solid a + b

Composition of A
Composition of B
Lead-Tin Phase Diagram
350
327C
300
Liquid
232C
Temperature, C

250
a Liquid + a b
200
19.2% 61.9% 97.5%
150
183C
100
a+b
50

0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Percent Tin
Definitions
Eutectoid Reaction

Eutectoid Point

Eutectoid
Steps to Analyzing a Phase Diagram
1. Determine the phase/phases present at the point
(composition vs. temperature)

2. The mass percentage composition of each phase at the

point can be determined by the drawing a horizontal
through the point for the length of the entire region.

3. The intersection of the horizontal line and a line on the

phase diagram defines the composition of the solution.
A Point with 2 Phases
4. If the point is located in a region with
more 2 phases, the mass percentage of
each phase within the region can be
determined by the inverse lever law.
 Inverse Lever Law
Inverse Lever Law (Derivation on pgs 56 + 57 of text)
The mass percentage of a phase present in a two phase
region is the length along the tie line portion from the
state point to the other phase region divided by the total
tie line length. Compositions are used as a measure of
length.
State Point

Mass percentage of Phase I x y

in the two-phase region:

Phase II Region
Phase I Region

y/(x+y)

(e.g. Liquid)
(e.g. Solid)

Phase I + Phase II Region

Mass percentage of Phase II
(e.g. Solid + Liquid)
In the two-phase region:
x/(x+y)
Example: Ni-Cu
For a 1000 kg block of Ni-Cu metal at a defined
state point of 53% Nickel and 47% Copper at
1300 oC, determine the following:

Compositions (%) of both the liquid and solid

phases

Mass percentages of the liquid and solid phases

The mass of Nickel in the Liquid Phase

Example: Ni - Cu

1700
Nickel - Copper Alloy
1600
Liquid Liquid +
Temperature, C

1500
Solida
1400 State Point 53% Ni, 47 % Cu

1300

1200
Solid a
1100

1000
Percent Ni by weight 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent Cu by weight 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Phase diagram for Fe-C
Cementite:
above 4.35 to 6.67
very hard and brittle alloy forms
6.67% Carbon 93.33% Iron "iron carbide"
Ferrite:
iron which contains very little carbon. this
is soft ductile material
Phase diagram for Fe-C
Pearlite:
combination of ferrite and cementite
structures
intermediate property structure
Austinite:
solid state gamma phase iron-carbon
combination.
Phase Diagram for C-Fe
Microstructure
Phases of Steel
Ferrite (BCC)
Austenite (FCC)
Cementite (Orthorhombic)
Delta Iron (BCC)
Grain Size
Time-Temperature-Transition Curves

Critical Temp.

Coarse
Pearlite
Fine
Pearlite
Bainite
Martinsite
Heat Treatments
Annealing
heated above critical temperature and
cooled slowly
softens structure
Quenching
heated above critical temperature and
cooled rapidly in water or oil
improves hardness and strength
Heat Treatments
Tempering
heated below critical temperature,
held and
quenched
improves ductility and toughness
while retaining hardness
Mild Steel Grades
A992 Low Alloy Carbon Steel
<0.23% Carbon
Common Structural Sections
Replaced A36 steel
A 572 High-Strength Low-Alloy
Columbium-Vanadium Steel
Grades 42, 50, 60, 65
Structural sections and bolts.....
Mild Steel Grades
A 615 Billet Reinforcing Steel
low alloy, high ductility steel
reinforcing bars
A588 Weathering Steel
should not be used in Cl water
environments
Free from moisture 40% of the time;
avoid extreme humid environments
Corrosion
Oxidation of metal requires
oxygen,
water,
two different metals connected electrically
electrolyte
Corrosion
Major problem with steel
Control Methods
Protective Coatings
Galvanic Protection
Cathodic Protection
Corrosion-resistant Steels
 S-N Curve

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
%Fy 0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
10 1000 100000
Number of Cycles to Failure
Strengthening Mechanisms
Alloying
Heat Treating
Cold Working
Alloying
Forming Solid Solution with Iron
Carbon, Chromium, Manganese, Nickel,
Copper, and Silicon
Formation of Carbide
Titanium, Vanadium, and Molybdenum
Formation of an Undissolved, second
phase
Lead, Sulfur, and Phosphorus
Heat Treatments
Full Annealing
Process Annealing
Normalizing
Quenching
Cold Working
Plastic deformation
Done below recrystallization
temperature
Other Properties of Steel
Impact
resistance to dynamic loadings (toughness)
Creep
time dependent deformation due to
sustained loads
Ductility
mild steels may yield at = 0.002 and
fracture at > 0.200
Forms of Steel
Structural Shapes
Wide flange sections,
Channels,
Tubing,
Plate
Reinforcing Steel
Cold Rolled forms, pans, sheet
Pipe
Structural Grades
ASTM
A36 & A 572 (being phased out)
A992 Structural Shapes
A325 Bolts
AISI - SAE
10XX
XX defines Carbon content
13XX
13 defines a manganese alloy steel
Applications
Structural Members
Bolts, Connectors
Reinforcement
Tools
Machines
 Steel Grades
ASTM Physical Reqmnts Chemical Reqmnts Comments
Grade
A36 Low Carbon Structural Steel
36 8=20% Fu=58-80 <.26C <.40Si Mn, P, S, Cu General purpose
A 500 Cold Form Tubing w/ maximum perifery of 1.6 m; t <16mm
50 2=21% Fu>60 <.30C (Mn, P, S, Cu) General Purpose
A 572 High-Strength Low-Alloy Columbium (Nb)-Vanadium (V )Steel
42 8=20% Fu=60 <.21C <1.35Mn Si,P,S,V,Nb Rivet, Bolt, Weld
Building&Bridge
50 8=18% Fu=65 <.23C <1.35Mn,Si Rivet, Bolt, Weld
Building&Bridge
60 8=16% Fu=75 <.26C <1.35Mn,Si Rivet, Bolt Bridge;
Weld Building
65 8=15% Fu=80 <.26C <1.35Mn,Si Rivet, Bolt Bridge;
Weld Building;
A 588 High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel (Weathering Steel)
50
A 615 Billet Reinforcing Steel
60 8=8% Fu=90
A 616 Rail Reinforceing Steel
60 8=4.5 Fu=90 <.C
%