Abiotic factors

pH value edaphic / soil condition

Temperature
Light intensity
Humidity amount of water vapour the air
Water
Topography the shape of an area of land
Microclimate smaller division of a habitat
 Biotic factors
1. Producers
- mainly green plants , autotrophs
- start the food web/food chain
- provide food and energy
2. Consumers
- obtain energy from other organisms
- heterotrophs : carnivores
herbivores
omnivores
saprophytes
 Classification of biotic
components into trophic level
 A series of organisms which
energy is transferred in the form of
food
The chemical energy contained within
the bodies of organisms is passed from
one another
Each stage is called trophic level
Pyramid of number

Tertiary consumer

Secondary consumer

Primary consumer

Producer
 Diagrammatically representing the size
of the trophic levels in a certain
ecosystem
Usually the numbers at the lower
trophic levels are much greater than the
numbers at the higher levels
 Energy transfer through food
chains
Food chains rarely contain more than
about five trophic levels
Less than 1 % of the sunlight energy is
used by plants in photosynthesis
The energy available to each trophic
level decreases as it is passed along the
food chains
Factors that decreases the amount of energy

1. Lost in the faeces

2. Used in respiration
3. Lost as heat
4. Used to increase the biomass of the
consumer
5. Lost as breakdown product e.g urine
 Food web
A complex network of feeding
interrelations among species in a
natural ecosystem

Combination of food chains

 The interactions between biotic
components in relation to feeding
Symbiosis
Interaction in which there is a close
and permanent relationships between
two specific organisms
Includes :
1. Commensalism
2. Parasitism
3. Mutualism
Commensalism Parasitism
One species gets A parasite obtains
benefit and the
its food from the
host is neither
host
benefited nor
harmed +ve - -ve
+ve 0 1. Endoparasite
1. Epiphyte - roundworm/
- money plants human
2. Epizoite 2. Ectoparasite
- remora/shark - lice/human
 Mutualism
Both members benefit from the
interaction
+ve - +ve
e.g :
1. Rhizobium sp. / root nodules of a
legumes
2. Algae/fungi (lichen)
 Saprophytism
The organism obtains nutrients
from dead organic matter
Decomposers bacteria, fungi
1. Saprophyte
- bracket fungus
2. Saprozoite
- animal : earthworm,bacteria
 Predator-Prey
Predator kills prey for their food
E.g owls / snakes
 The interactions between biotic
components in relation to competition
Intraspecific competition
Competition between individuals of the
same species
E.g Plant seedlings compete for :
1. Light
2. Water
3. Space
4. nutrients
 Interspecific competition
Competition between individuals of
different species
E.g Paramecium aurelia and
Paramecium caudatum
 Ecosystem
An ecological system formed by the
interaction of living organisms and their
environment
Niche
The function of an organism or the role
it plays in the habitat
More than one organism can live in the
same habitat but they occupy different
niche
Example : giraffe and zebra
 Species
A group of closely related organisms
which are capable of interbreeding to
produce fertile offspring

Habitat
The place where the organisms live
Provides food, shelter etc
Several habitats form ecosystem
 Population
A group of individuals of the same
species occupying the same habitat

Community
A population of organisms living
together within the same habitat
Represent the biotic component
Seldom static
Ecosystem

Community

Population

Species
 Colonisation
The process in which a habitat is
dominated by a species for the first time
The first species to colonise a habitat is
called pioneer species
Pioneer species has successful
adaptation to abiotic factor
 Pioneer species
Autotrophs
Can tolerate the new environment
Good dispersal mechanism to reach the
new habitat
Examples : algae
 Adaptation
1. Produce large numbers of easily
dispersed seeds
2. The dense root systems bind the sand
and soil particles together to improve
the structure
3. Have leaves which reduce transpiration
4. Short life cycle add humus to the soil
 Succession
The gradual process in which one
community changes the environment
So that it is replaced by another
community
Successor has good adaptation to
environment than pioneer species
Succession is a very slow and
continuous process which occurs
instages
 Succession
The process by which one community
is gradually replaced by another
Two types :
1. Primary succession
- newly emerged land or water
2. Secondary succession
- develops following fire, flood etc
 when the pioneer species die,
Colonisation by decomposition will take place
pioneer species lead to soil formation &
nutrients are available for plant
growth

modifies the environment

Series of creates opportunity for other
succession organisms to live
Gradual and continuous
process

Climax the most complex, diverse and

community productive community a given
area can sustain
 Colonisation
& Succession in a Pond

Pioneer species (submerged plant):

Hydrilla sp. , Cabomba sp. , Elodea
sp. , Utricularia sp.

Floating plant:
Lemna sp. , Nelumbium sp. ,
Eichornia sp. , Pistia sp.

Amphibian plant:
Ipomea sp. , Cyperus sp.
Herb plants, shrubs

Primary forest
 Pioneer species (submerged plant)

Hydrilla sp. , Cabomba sp. , Elodea sp. ,

Utricularia sp.
Carry out photosynthesis
Contribute debris and supply nutrient
Decomposition and erosion of the pond wall
add silt and reduce water level
The new environment is now suitable for the
first successor the floating plant
 Floating plants
Lemna sp. , Nelumbium sp. , Eichornia sp. ,
Pistia sp.
Have broader leaves which cover the water
surface
The pioneers receive less light for
photosynthesis
The rate of decomposition and the
accumulation of humus increase
The pond become shallower
Suitable for the next successor emerged
plant
Emerged plant (Amphibian plants)

Can live in water and on land

Near the pond side
The accumulation of humus and silt
allow these plants to dominate
 Bushes
The creepers, herb plants and shrubs
will replace the emergent plants

Primary forest
The bushes will be replaced by a
primary forest and eventually reached a
climax community
 Colonisation
& Succession in a Mangrove swamp

Found at the river estuaries in which

rivers meet the sea
Not exposed to strong tidal waves or
winds
Allows formation of mud flats
The soil has very low levels of oxygen
and high concentration of salt
Exposed to high intensity of light
 Aspect Condition Adaptation
Support Soft muddy soil
Strong coastal wind
Oxygen supply Waterlogged
condition

High rate of High temperature

transpiration Direct sunlight
Losing water by High salinity
osmosis

Seeds Submerged within

dispersion the soft, waterlogged
soil
 Adaptation
1.Develop underground roots - stilt roots and
pneumatophores with lenticels
- respiration above the ground
2.Salt glands on their leaves - expel excess salt
3.Thick and succulent leaves - preserve water to
overcome salty condition
4.Cutinised leaves with sunken stomata
prevent excess water loss
5.Viviparity produce seeds that germinate on
the mother plant
 R B H
silt
A S
S
estuary
S

R B H
silt A S
 Pioneer species
Avicennia sp. - soft muddy area facing
the sea
Sonneratia sp. area facing the river
sides
pneumatophores
 Succesors
The mud becomes firm
The loam and clay content increases
More fertile because of the dead leaves
and humus
Seedlings of Rhizophora sp. are trapped
in soil
Root system of Rhizophora sp. traps
litter and mud
The land continuously elevated
Bruguiera sp.will dominate this area
Prop roots
Buttress roots + knee-shaped
pneumatophores
 The land becomes higher and is flooded
only during the highest flood
Suitable for Nypa sp. and pandanus
plant
Further inland, mud becomes hard and
firm
Allow smaller trees and shrubs to grow
Eventually a climax community is
reached
 The appropriate sampling technique to
study the population size of an organism

Population ecology
Various factors affect the size of a
population biotic factors, abiotic
factors, immigration, emigration etc.
Population density : the number of
organismss per unit area
 Quadrat Sampling Technique
To estimate the size of plant
population ( also for sessile or slow
moving animals)

Total number of organisms in

all quadrats
Density =
Numbers of Area of one
quadrats X quadrats
 Number of quadrats containing
the species
Frequency = X 100 %
Total number of
quadrats

Total area covered

Percentage by the species X 100 %
=
Coverage Numbers of Area of one
quadrats X quadrats
The Capture, Mark, Release and Recapture
Technique

For estimating motile or fast moving

animals
E.g insects, fish, amphibians etc.
 Population size
=
The number of The number of
animals in the X animals in the
first capture second capture

The number of marked animals

in the second capture
 The effect of abiotic factors to
population distribution
Population distribution can be affected by
the changes in abiotic factor
If the habitat is suitable the distribution of an
organism will be more abundant
 Biodiversity
Varieties of organisms, habitats and
ecosystems in a particular location
Malaysia 8000 species of flowering
plants
 Classification of organisms

Organism need to be classified

for easy reference and
identification
To show the relationship
between organisms and to trace
the possible origin
 The five PLANTAE
kingdoms

ANIMALIA FUNGI

KINGDOM

MONERA PROTISTA
KINGDOM

PHYLUM

CLASS

ORDER

FAMILY

GENUS

SPECIES
KINGDOM Animalia

PHYLUM Chordata

CLASS Mamalia

ORDER Primate

FAMILY Homonidae

GENUS Homo
SPECIES sapiens
 Animalia
Multicellular organisms
Do not have cell wall
Able to move from place to place
E.g human, bird
 Plantae
All plants
Multicellular with cell walls
Contain chlorophyll to synthesise
their own food
E.g flowers, ferns
 Fungi
Consists of unicellular and multicellular organis
Eukaryote
Reproduce asexually budding, binary fission,
spores
Do not contain chlorophyll
Feed saprophytically or parasitically
E.g yeast, mushrooms
 Protista
Includes protozoa and algae
Eukaryote , mostly unicellular
Have nuclei surrounded by nuclear
membranes
E.g Amoeba sp , Paramecium sp.
 Monera / Prokaryote
Consists of bacteria and blue green algae
Unicellular, have cell walls
Have no nuclear membrane and
other membrane-bound organelles
 Naming organisms using the
Linnaeus binomial system
The rules
Consists of two words
Genus species
First alphabet in genus capital letter
Words in species name small letters
Underlined separately / can be written
in italic
 Examples
Eichornia crassipes
Eichornia crassipes

Lutjanus johni
Lutjanus johni
Giberella fujikorai
Giberella fujikorai
Classification of microorganisms

Virus
Smallest microorganisms which are made up
of nucleic acid, DNA or RNA surrounded by a
protein coat
Do not have cytoplasm and plasma membrane
Needs living organism as host to live in and
reproduce
Crystallize outside of the cell
Parasites, not affected by antibiotic
Eg: Influenza virus, HIV virus
 Bacteria
Unicellular organism
Have cell walls and plasma membrane
DNA only , not enclosed by a nucleus
membrane
Reproduce
1. Asexually e binary fission
2. Spores when condition is not favourable
Can be destroyed by antibiotic
Eg: Bacillus, Spirillum, vibrio
 Algae
Autotrophic organisms
Have chlorophyll , cell walls are made of
cellulose
Habitat wet soil, bark of tree , ponds
Reproduce sexually and asexually
Diatom, Dinoflagellate,
 Protozoa
Heterotrophic unicellular aquatic organisms
Habitat rivers, ponds, wet soil, body fluid of
other organisms
Have no cell walls
Movement cilia, flagella, pseudopodia
Eg: Paramecium, Plasmodium(malaria)
 Fungi
Unicellular and multicellular organisms
Do not contain chlorophyll
Heterotrophs parasitically or
saprophytically
Reproduce asexually budding, binary
fission, spores
Eg: Mucor, Yeast, Aspergillus
The abiotic components affecting
the activity of microorganisms
 Temperature
Low inactive
Optimum- 30o C to 40o C
More than 60o C - killed
 pH value
Slightly acidic protozoa and fungi
Slightly alkaline bacteria
Preferable between pH 6 to pH 7
Affect enzymes action
 Nutrient
All microbes except for virus need
nutrient
Activities increase as the
concentration of nutrient increase
 Light intensity
Most microbes prefer to live in the
dark
Can be killed by ultra violet rays
Algae prefers higher light intensity
to carry out photosynthesis
 Humidity
Important for cell metabolism
Organisms will die due to
dehydration
Useful microorganisms
 Decomposition
Carbohydrates
Simple
substances Lipid
protein

Saprophytic bacteria and

fungi
Nitrobacter sp

Nitrosomonas sp
 Alimentary canal of termites

Triconympha sp.
Helps in digestion of cellulose
Microorganisms in
biotechnology
Production of antibiotics and vaccines

Penicillium notatum antibiotic for

treatment of STD and pneumonia
Also used to produce :
- Insulin, growth hormones and
antibodies
 Cleaning oil spills
Bacteria is used to decompose
the oil into carbon dioxide and
water
 Food processing
Bacteria produce enzymes to
degrade fat, carbohydrates and
protein in the production of cheese, yogurt
and tempe.
Harmful microorganisms
 Pathogen
Organisms that can cause disease

Vector
organism that act as a transmitter
 Methods of disease transmission
2. Droplet infection (air)
1. Food and water Sneezing, coughing,
Cholera, typhoid talking
From Fine droplets of saliva
contaminated and mucus which
contain pathogens
food and water
Attack the respiratory
system
3. Direct contact 4. Vector
Ringworms, Housefly,
dandruffs, mosquitoes
athletes food cockroaches
Methods for controlling the pathogens

1. Vaccine
2. Antibiotics
3. Antiseptic
4. Disinfectant
 Vaccine
Modified or weakened forms of
viruses / suspensions of dead
bacteria
Innoculated into the body to induce
the production of antibodies
 Antibiotics
Chemical substances produced by
microorganisms
Kill / inhibit growth of other
microorganisms
Penicillin,streptomycin
 Antiseptics
Any substance that kills or inhibits
the growth of disease-causing
microorganisms
Ethanol, hydrogen peroxide
 Disinfectant
Solution used to kill microorganisms
on the surface of floors, furniture,
clean surgical apparatus
Toxic to human tissue
formaldehyde