HEAT and Mass Transfer

Course Code: NME- 501

Heat Transfer Applications

Heat transfer is commonly encountered in engineering

systems and other aspects of life, and one does not need to
go very far to see some .
Human body
 Heat Transfer - Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat
transfer as a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium
state to another, and it gives no indication about how long the
process will take.
A thermodynamic analysis simply tells us how much heat
must be transferred to realize a specified change of state to
satisfy the conservation of energy principle.
We are normally interested in how long it takes for the hot coffee in a
thermos to cool to a certain temperature, which cannot be determined from
a thermodynamic analysis alone.
Determining the rates of heat transfer to or from a system and
times of cooling or heating as well as the thus the heating,
variation of the temperature, is the subject of heat transfer
 Heat transfer is energy transfer due to a temperature difference
in a medium or between two or more media.
Different types of heat transfer processes are called different
modes of heat transfer
Conduction heat transfer is due to a temperature gradient
in a stationary medium or media
Convection heat transfer occurs between a surface and a
moving fluid at different temperatures.
Radiation heat transfer occurs due to emission of energy in
the form of electromagnetic waves by all bodies above
absolute zero temperature.
 Net radiation heat transfer occurs when there exists a
temperature difference between two or more surfaces
emitting radiation energy

Conduction heat transfer is due to random molecular and

atomic vibrational , rotational and translational motions

High temperature and more energetic molecules vibrate

more and transfer energy to less energetic particles as a
result of molecular collisions or interactions
 Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interactions between the
particles.
Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases. In
gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and
diffusion of the molecules during their random motion.
In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the
molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free
electrons.
The rate of heat conduction through a medium depends
on the geometry of the medium, its thickness, and the
material of the medium, as well as the temperature
difference across the medium.
The Fourier law is essentially based
on the following assumptions :
Steady state conduction which implies that the time rate of
heat flow between any two selected points is constant with
time. This also means that the temperature of the fixed
points within a heat conducing body does not change with
time.
One-directional heat flow; only one space coordinate is
required to describe the temperature distribution within the
heat conducting body; t = f(x).The surfaces in the y-and z-
direction are perfectly insulated.
Bounding surfaces are isothermal in character, i.e, constant
and uniform temperature are maintained at the two faces.
 isotropic and homogenous material , i.e., thermal
conductivity has a constant value in all the directions.
constant temperature gradient ,a linear temperature
profile.
no internal heat generation.
Some essential features of the Fourier relation are
Enumerated below :
Fourier law is valid for all matter regardless of its state;
solid, liquid or gas
Fourier law is a vector expression indicating that heat
flow rate is normal to an isotherm and is in the direction of
decreasing temperature.
Fourier law cannot be derived from first principle ; it is a
generalization based on experimental evidence.
Fourier law helps to define the transport property k, i.e.,
the thermal conductivity of the heat conducting medium.
Thermal conductivity of Materials
Assuming dx = 1m;A = 1m2 and dt =1sec; , we obtain
Q=k
k(unit of k: W/m2 xm/K(or C)=W/mK or W/mK
Hence thermal conductivity may be defined as the
amount of heat conducted per unit time across unit area,
and through unit thickness, when a temperature
difference of unit degree is maintained across the
bounding surfaces/body.
 The unit kJ/m- hr-deg could also be specified as J/m-s-
deg or W/m-deg and this is actually done while quoting
the numerical values of thermal conductivity.
Following conversion factors help to convert the thermal
conductivity from MKS system of units into SI units.
Thermal conductivity(a property of material) depends
essentially upon the following factor.
(i)Material structure (ii)Moisture content
(iii)Density of the material (iv)Pressure and temperature
 Fouriers Law

In the limiting case of x 0, the equation above reduces to the

differential form

The negative sign ensures that heat transfer in the positive x

direction is a positive quantity
 The heat flux q is heat conducted per unit
time per unit area and is given by
q= Q/A

Heat transfer in metal rods, in heat treatment of steel forgings

and through the walls of heat exchange equipment are some
practical examples of heat conduction
Range of Thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivities of gases such as air
vary by a factor of 10 4 from those of pure metals
such as copper.

Note that pure crystals and metals have the highest

thermal conductivities. Gases and insulating
materials have the lowest.
A simple experimental setup to determine the thermal
conductivity of a material of a Material
Thermal conductivity of various
materials at room temperature
The thermal conductivity of a substance is normally
highest in the solid phase and lowest in the gas phase.
Unlike gases, the thermal conductivities of most
decrease with increase temperature, with water being a
notable Exception

In solids, heat conduction is due to two effects:

The lattice vibrational waves induced by vibration

motions of the molecules positioned at relative fixed
position in the periodic manner called lattices and. the
energy transported via the free flow of electrons in the
solid
The lattice component of thermal Conductivity strongly
depends on the way the molecules are arranged.

Unlike metals, which are good electrical and heat

conductors, crystalline solids such as diamond and
semiconductors such as silicon are good heat conductors
but poor electrical conductors.

As a result, such materials find widespread use in the

electronics industries.

Even small amounts in a pure metal of foreign

molecules that are good conductors themselves For
seriously disrupt the flow of heat in that metal

For example, the thermal Conductivity of steel

containing just one percent of chrome is 62 W/mC,
while the thermal conductivities of iron
and chromium are 83 and 95 W/mC
The variation of the thermal conductivity of various solids, liquids
and gases with temperature.
Another material property that appears in the transient heat conduction analysis
is the thermal diffusivity, which represents how fast heat diffuses through a
material
Note that the thermal diffusivity ranges
from 0.14 x 10-6 m2/s for water to 174 x
10-6 m2/s for silver, which is a difference
of more than a thousand times.

Also note that the thermal diffusivities

of beef and water are the same. This is
not surprising, since meat as well as
fresh vegetables and fruits are mostly
water and thus They possess the thermal
properties of water.
Convection heat transfer involves both energy transfer due to random
molecular motions and by bulk motion of the fluid.
---Convection heat transfer includes both forced convection and natural
Convection.

In Convection heat transfer, transfer of heat is between a surface and a

moving fluid (liquid or gas), when they are at different temperatures.
The rate of transfer is given by Newtons Law of Cooling.
Typical values of convection heat
Transfer coefficient
All surfaces of finite temperature emit energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves
In the absence of an interveninng medium, there is a heat
transfer by radiation between two surfaces at different
temperatures
The maximum flux, E (W / m2), at which radiation may be
emitted from a black body surface
Stefan Boltzmann Law