SAMPLING

by
P.C.Saxena Ph.D (Statistics)

Garware Chair Professor

Tata Institute of Social Sciences
MUMBAI
 Introduction
Inferential statistical methods use sample statistics to make
predictions about population parameters.

The quality of inferences depends crucially on how well the

sample represents the population.

To ensure a good sample representation randomization is

essential.

What is randomization?
Randomization is the mechanism for ensuring that the
sample representation is adequate for inferential methods.
 Methods of Sampling
Sampling is quite often used in our day-to-day
practical life where, our purpose is to determine the
population characteristics only by observing a finite
sub set of individuals taken from it.

Sampling methods can be classified under two

heads namely,
1. Probability Sampling Methods
2. Non-probability Sampling Methods
 Probability Sampling Methods
1. Simple Random Sampling
2. Systematic Sampling
3. Stratified Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
5. Multistage Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling : A Simple Random Sample of
n subjects from a population is one in which each possible
sample of that size has the same probability of being
selected.

How to Select a Simple Random Sample?

• Before selecting a Random Sample, we need a list of all
subjects in the population. The list is called Sampling
Frame. The most common method for selecting a simple
random sample from the sampling frame is the use of a
random number table.

• A random number table is a table containing a sequence of

numbers that is computer generated according to a scheme
whereby each digit is equally likely to be any of the integers
0,1,2, ... ,9
2. Systematic Sampling: If a sample of size n
is to be selected from a population size by N
and let k = N/n. A systematic random sample

1. Selects a subject at random from the first k names in

the sampling frame, and

2. Selects every kth subject listed after that one. The

number k is called the skip number.

k=3

Random Start
3. Stratified Sampling : A stratified random
sample divides the population into separate
groups, called strata and then selects a
simple random sample from each stratum.
The population is divided into k
homogeneous strata with stratum size N1, N2,
…, Nk such that
N1 + N2 + …+ Nk=N

N1 Nk
+ N2 +……+ =N
n1
+ n2
+……+ nk
=n
4. Cluster Sampling: Simple, systematic and
stratified random sampling are very expensive or
ever impossible to implement in many situations
particularly when a complete and up to date
sampling frame is not available.

In cluster sampling, the population is divided in to

large number of groups, called clusters. A cluster
sample is one for which the sampling units are the
subjects in a random sample of the clusters.
5. Multistage Sampling: Multi-stage sampling
methods use combinations of various sampling
techniques. For example, to study various
characteristics of adult residents in Maharashtra
state, one could treat districts as clusters and select
a random sample of a certain number of them. Now
within each district selected one could take cluster
sample of villages. Within each village selected,
one could systematically sample every 10th
household. Within each household selected, one
could select one adult at random from the sample.
Determination of Sample Size
One of the basic decisions that is needed in
designing a sample survey is the sample size. A
simple way to obtain an idea about the required
sample size is as follows:
Let P be the proportion of cases having the
characteristic (under study) in the population. Then
the coefficient of variation of P, based on a sample
size of n, is given by

Q
Coefficient of variation of P  where Q  1 - P
nP
Now, if we want to estimate the characteristic with, say, α percent margin
of error, we can write
Q

nP
1 Q
 n 2
 P

To estimate the sample size by this procedure, we need to have rough idea
about the value of P.
Let us suppose we want to conduct a sample survey-selecting households
as the ultimate unit to estimate the level of crude birth rate (CBR) in the
population.

Further, let the approximate level of CBR in the population be 40 per 1000
population. Let us first find how many persons we should select from the
population to estimate the CBR with say 5 per cent margin of error.
1 0.96
 No. of persons to be selected    9600
0.0025 0.04
Assuming the average household size of 6, the required sample size can be
taken as
9600
 1600
6
Non-Probability Sampling Methods
Social research is often conducted in situations
that do not allow the kinds of probability
sampling discussed so far, for large-scale
social surveys. Suppose we want to study
homelessness. Neither a list of all homeless
individuals is available nor it can be created.
Moreover, there are times when probability
sampling wouldn’t be appropriate. Such
situations call for non-probability sampling.
 Methods of Non-Probability Sampling
1. Purposive or Judgement Sampling;
2. Volunteer Sampling;
3. Snowball Sampling;
4. Quota Sampling; and
5. Selecting Informants

1. Purposive or Judgement Sampling

Sometimes it is appropriate to select a sample on
the basis of knowledge of a population and the
purpose of the study. This type of sampling is
called purposive or judgement sampling.
2. Volunteer Sampling
One of the most common non-probability sampling
methods is volunteer sampling. In this method
subjects volunteer themselves for the sample. A good
example of volunteer sampling is visible almost any
day on television. Some T.V. programmes ask viewers
to offer their opinions on any issue or vote for any
celebrity for his/her performance through SMS or
calling a phone number. The danger in this method is
that the sample will poorly represent the population
and may yield misleading conclusions.
3. Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling method is appropriate when the
members of a special population or individuals with
a rare characteristic are difficult to locate such as
persons in a village who were bitten by snake. In
this method, the researcher collects data from the
few members of the target population; then asks
those individuals to provide information needed to
locate other members of the target population whom
they happen to know.
4. Quota Sampling
Quota sampling begins with a matrix, or table, describing the
relevant characteristics of the target population. Depending on
your research purposes, you may need to know what proportion
of the population is male and what proportion female as well as
what proportion of each gender fall into various age categories,
educational levels, ethnic groups, and so forth.

Once you have created such matrix and assigned a relative

proportion to each cell in the matrix, you proceed to collect data
from people having all the characteristics of a given cell. You
then assign a weight to all the people in a given cell that is
appropriate to their total population. When all the sample
elements are so weighted , the overall data should provide a
reasonable representation of the total population.
5. Selecting Informants
When field research involves an attempt to
understand some social setting – a juvenile gang or
local neighbourhood, for example – much of the
researcher’s understanding comes from collaboration
with some members of the group being studied. Such
collaboration allows the researcher to construct a
composite picture of the group those respondents
represent, an informant is a member of the group
who can talk directly about the group.
 Sampling Error

The sampling error of a statistic is the error

that occurs when a statistic based on a
sample estimates or predicts the value of a
population parameter.
1. Other Sources of Variability/Error
2. Under-coverage
3. Response Bias
4. Non-response
5. Missing Data
 Sampling Distribution
A sampling distribution is a probability
distribution that determines probabilities of the
possible values of a sample statistic.

Standard Error
The standard deviation of the sampling
distribution of the sample statistic is called the
standard error of the statistic
 Questions
• 1. What is the major drawback of
purposive sampling?
• List the advantages of sampling over
complete enumeration or census.
• What are the advantages of probability
sampling over non-probability
sampling?
 References
Agresti Alan and Barbara Finlay (1997) Statistical Methods for the Social Sciences, 3rd ed.,
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Babbie, Earl (2004) The Practice of Social Research, 10th ed. (India Edition),

Thompson/Wordsworth, CENGAGE Learning, New Delhi, India.

Kalton, G. (1983) Introduction to Survey Sampling, Sage Publication, Newbury Park,

California.

Kish, L. (1965) Survey Sampling, John Wiley, New York.

Scheaffer, R. L., W. Mendenhall, and L. Ott (1996) Elementary Survey Sampling, 5th ed.,
Wordsworth, Belmont, California.

Sudman, S. (1976) Applied Sampling, Academic Press, New York.

Thompson, S. K. (1992) Sampling, John Wiley, New York

Thank You