University of Engineering and Technology Taxila

Mechanical Engineering Department

Notes: 02
(Entry-2016)

Course Title: THERMODYNAMICS-I

Code: ME-121
Tutor: Khalid Masood Khan
The Principle of Conservation of Energy
Energy can be neither created nor destroyed.

The First Law of Thermodynamics is merely one statement of this general

principle with particular reference to heat and work.

Note
Dont confuse the 1st law with energy conservation. The latter connotes
preservation of quality of energy! This concept is akin more to the 2nd law.
 Change in as system (working fluid) changes from state-1 to state-2 is = 2
1 .

gain in internal energy = net heat supplied net work done = 2 1

i.e. 2 1 = 21 21

This equation is true for a process or a series of processes between state-1 and
state-2 provided there is no flow of fluid into or out of the system (closed
system/control mass).
 Rules

In any one non-flow process there will be either heat supplied or

heat rejected, but not both; similarly there will be either work
output or work input, but not both.

According to the convention (to be followed throughout this

course), heat supplied to the system is positive, work done by
the system is positive.
 Applying above rules reduces the equation, 2 1 = 21 21 , to:

2 1 = for a non flow process

i.e. = 2 1 +

or, on per basis, = 2 1 + 2.2

Equation 2.2 is called the non-flow energy equation. In differential form:

= + 2.3

Note: Equations (. . ) are true whether the process is reversible or not. These are energy
equations [energy is conserved!].
Example-2.2

Statement
In the compression stroke of an internal-combustion engine the heat
rejected to the cooling water is 45 and the work input is 90 /.
Calculate the change in specific internal energy of the working fluid stating
whether it is a gain or a loss.
Solution

= 45 ( )
= 90 ( )

Applying 2.2 : = 2 1 +

45 = 2 1 90
2 1 = +90 45 = 45

gain in specific internal energy = 45

Example-2.3

Statement
In the cylinder of an air motor the compressed air has a specific internal
energy of 420 / at the beginning of the expansion and a specific
internal energy of 200 / after expansion. Calculate the heat flow to or
from the cylinder when the work done by the air during the expansion is
100 .
Solution

Applying 2.2 :

= 2 1 +

Q= 200 420 + 100

= 220 + 100 = 120 /

. . = +120 /
Ideal Reversible Non-Flow Process

Equation 1.2 gives:

2

=
1
or, on differential basis,
=

Substituting in equation 2.3:

= + 2.4
 Substituting the expression for reversible work in equation 2.2 gives:

= 2 1 + 2.5
1

is an inexact differential (path function) replaced by , an exact

differential (point function).

Heat and work are path functions; both depend on the particular process (path).

System property is a point function; it depends only on the state point, never on
the history (process/path) about how the system state has been reached.
The Steady Flow Energy Equation
Let 1 of a fluid with specific internal energy, , is moving with velocity and is a height above a datum level. In
this condition, it possesses a total energy, + 2 2 + , where 2 2 is the kinetic energy of 1 of fluid and
is the potential energy of 1 of fluid. In most applications of engineering interest, the rate at which fluid flows
through a piece of machinery, equipment or apparatus, is constant. This type of flow is called steady flow. Another
way, the rate of mass flow of fluid at any section in steady flow is the same as at any other section. Fig-2.2 shows the
fluid flowing steadily through an apparatus. It is an example of an open system (control volume). The boundary
(control surface) is shown cutting the inlet pipe at section-1 and the outlet pipe at section-2. Let units of heat per
kg of fluid are supplied to the fluid while fluid does units of work per kg as it flows through the apparatus. Now in
order to introduce 1 of fluid across the boundary at inlet, an expenditure of energy is required. Similarly, in order
to push 1 of fluid across the boundary at exit, an expenditure of energy is required.
 The inlet section is shown enlarged in fig-2.3. Consider an element of fluid,
length , and let the cross-sectional area of the inlet pipe be 1 .

= 1 1
= 1 of fluid

for 1 of fluid = 1 1

Similarly, it can be shown that

1 of fluid = 2 2
Energy entering the system (apparatus):
1. u1 + C12 2 + Z1 g, energy of fluid as it approaches the apparatus at inlet
2. p1 1 , energy required to push fluid into the apparatus at inlet
3. Q, heat supplied across the boundary as fluid flows through the apparatus
Energy that enters at inlet and that transferred as heat across the boundary
= + +

Energy leaving the system (apparatus):

1. u2 + C22 2 + Z2 g, energy of fluid as it is about to leave the apparatus at outlet
2. p2 2 , energy required to push fluid out of the apparatus at outlet
3. W, work done across the boundary by fluid as it flows through the apparatus

Energy that leaves at outlet and that transferred as work output across the boundary
= + +
 For steady flow (fluid, heat and/or work), it is possible to write the following
balance equation [1st law of thermodynamics]:

1 + 12 2 + 1 + 1 1 + = 2 + 22 2 + 2 + 2 2 + 2.6

Further simplifications are possible depending on the applications.

The sum of specific internal energy, , and the term, , is given the symbol, ,
and is called specific enthalpy.

. . specific enthalpy = = + 2.7

 Substituting equation 2.7 in equation 2.6, omitting potential energy terms (usually small), gives:

1 + 12 2 + = 2 + 22 2 + 2.8

Equation 2.8 is called steady-flow energy equation. Since enthalpy is a system property, it can be introduced into
any problem whether the process is a flow process or a non-flow process.

Elaborating more on steady flow, consider now any section of cross-sectional area where the fluid velocity is ,
then the volume flow past the section is .

Dividing by specific volume, , gives the constant quantity that defines steady flow, i.e. mass flow rate,
= = 2.9
where is density of fluid at the section.

Equation 2.9 is known as continuity of mass equation.

Example 2.4
Statement
In the turbine of a gas turbine unit the gases flow through the turbine at
17 / and the power developed by the turbine is 14000 . The
enthalpies of the gases at inlet and outlet are 1200 / and 360 /
respectively, and the velocities of the gases at inlet and outlet are 60
and 150 respectively. Calculate the rate at which heat is rejected from
the turbine. Find also the area of the inlet pipe given that the specific volume
of the gases at inlet is 0.5 3 .
Solution
Fig-2.4 shows diagram of the turbine.
Rewriting equation 2.8, gives: 1 + 12 2 + = 2 + 22 2 +

2
2 . 2
= 12 2 = 60 2 2 2 = 1800 = 1800 = 1800 = 1800 = 1.8
2

= 22 2 = 2.5 = 2.5 1.8 = 11.25

14000
work output = = = 823.5
17
Substituting values in equation 2.8:
1200 + 1.8 + = 360 + 11.25 + 823.5
= 7.02
heat rejected = +7.02 = 7.02 17 = 119.3
From equation (2.9),
=


=

17 0.5
, 1 = 2 = 0.142 2
60
Example 2.5
Statement
Air flows steadily at the rate of 0.4 through an air compressor, entering at
6 with a pressure of 1 and a specific volume of 0.85 3 , and leaving
at 4.5 with a pressure of 6.9 and a specific volume of 0.16 3 . The
specific internal energy of the air leaving is 88 greater than that of the air
entering. Cooling water in a jacket surrounding the cylinder absorbs heat from the
air at the rate of 59 . Calculate the power required to drive the compressor,
and the inlet and the outlet cross-sectional areas.
Solution
Omitting the potential energy terms in steady-flow energy equation 2.6:
1 + 12 2 + 1 1 + = 2 + 22 2 + 2 2 + 2.
Fig-2.5 is a diagrammatic representation of the compressor. Heat rejected across
the boundary is equivalent to heat removed by the cooling water from the
compressor.
12 2 = 6 6 2 = 0.018
22 2 = 4.5 4.5 2 = 0.0101
1105
1 1 = 0.85 = 85
103
6.9105
2 2 = 0.16 = 110.4
103
 2 1 = 88
59
= 59 = = 147.5
0.4

Rearranging equation 2.a for work done:

12 22
= 1 2 + 1 1 + 2 2 + +
2 2

= 88 + 85 110.4 + 0.018 0.0101 147.5 = 260.9


= +260.9


= +260.9 0.4 = +104.4 = +104.4


From equation 2.9, =



i.e. =

For the condition at compressor inlet,

1 0.4 0.85
1 = = 2 = 0.057 2
1 6
i.e. inlet pipe cross-sectional area = 0.057 2
Similarly, for the conditions at compressor outlet,

2 0.4 0.16
2 = = 2 = 0.014 2
2 4.5
i.e. outlet pipe cross-sectional area = 0.014 2