FOUNDATION OF

PHYSICAL EDUCATION
PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES IN THE PRIMITIVE SOCIETY

Participation in physical activities in the

primitive society -PRACTICAL
To carry on the demands of primitive
life- Strong, agile, and powerful body
Mimetic games provided children the
opportunity to prepare themselves for
adult life and responsibilities.
Dancing- communication to their gods.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN ANCIENT NATION

Phoenicians,
Philistines,
Hebrews,
the Canaanites of Syria,
and the people of Egypt
and Mesopotamia- Gave birth to
civilization that marked a turning point in
the history of physical education and sport.
 PERSIA
primary aim of physical
education=developing in their young men
military skills, high moral standards and
patriotism to strengthen and extend the
empire.
The Persian boy (7-15) learns how to shoot
the bows, sling stones, throw the javelin,
bear extreme temperature, endure long
marches, live on little food, swim across
rivers while keeping their equipment dry
 Egyptians had popular physical activities
EGYPT although formal physical education was
not included in the curriculum.
Egyptians hunt, trap and fish with the use
of bow and arrows, spears, and harpoons.
Popular activities were
swimming(civilizations life was based on
rivers,)
wrestling which was participated in by
the nobility, the soldiers, the merchants,
and the unskilled laborers,
gymnastic activities and games using the
skills of fighting and war.
 Emphasis is on intellectual excellence
CHINA ( evidences that Ancient Chinese
participated in physical activities)
National leaders were expected to be
proficient in shooting the bow and
horseback riding.
Military men were given examinations
on lifting the weights, shooting the
bow, and handling the sword.
They boxed, played football, practiced
jiu-jitsu.
 Sons of rich families engaged in music,
dancing, and archery.
Recreational games and sports - early
versions of soccer, polo, chess,
competitions in archery and wrestling
Dancing was popular that a mans prestige
often depended on his skill as a dancer.
When ancient Chinese felt weak, Cong Fu,
a mild exercises, similar to gymnastics-
developed in 2698 B.C ( to prevent
diseases and keep the body in good
organic conditions.)
 Ancient India was as ancient as Chinas. Buddhas
INDIA prohibition of games, amusements, and exercises
did not totally prevent ancient India from
participating in several physical activities.
Favorite of the people: throwing balls, tumbling,
chariot races, riding elephants and horse,
swordsmanship, wrestling, boxing, and playing
dice and marbles
Yoga, was popular. Unique activity involving
exercises in posture, regulated breathing, to
discipline the mind and the body.
Dances were used for ceremonies and religious
observances.
Hindu dancing was considered the oldest of
organized dancing.
 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN
GREECE
Physical education was a vital part of the
education of every Greek boy.
Gymnastics and music were the two most
important subjects music for the soul and
gymnastics for the body.
Gymnastics was believed to contribute to courage,
discipline, and physical well-being.
Beauty of the physique was stressed and men and
boys participated in the nude, which motivated
development of the body beautiful.
 Greek sport manifested itself in
the concept of the amateur
athlete,
whose primary goal is to
compete in a circuit major
national festivals
1. Pan-Hellenic Festivals-most
important event in the lives of
the Greeks ( one major
competition was held every year.)
2.The Olympia Festival was at Olympia
every four years in honor of Zeus.
Winners received wild olive leaves.
3.The Pythia Festival was held at
Delphi at the sacred site of Apollo,
the god of light and truth every four
years and laurel for the winners.
The athletes competed as
individuals not as a team, on a
fervently amateur basis. Women
were banned from the games.
Spartan Physical Education
All Spartan citizens had only one profession
serve the country as a soldier and to be
warriors.
The Spartan approach to physical training
(not physical education)
Only the strongest and the healthiest
babies are allowed to live in Sparta.
Unhealthy ones were taken to Mt. Taygetus
to die.
Popular physical activities were wrestling,
swimming, and horseback riding..
Physical Activities in Athens
Physical education and athletic
competitions was prominent feature of
Athenian education.
Sport was associated with philosophy,
music, literature, painting, and particularly
with sculpture.
An ideal Athenian education was to
achieve a proper balance in moral, mental,
physical, and aesthetic development.
 Athenian @ 6 yrs old-schooling in the
palaestrae, (a building that provided
rooms for various physical activities and
for oiling and sanding the athletes body.
)
Many activities were accompanied with
music by a flute player. The PE teacher
taught various activities, understood
how certain exercises should be adopted
to various physical conditions, and knew
how to develop strength and endurance
Greek Philosophers &Teachers Who
Contributed to the Worth of PE
Plato believed : gymnastics and music, is physical
education and academics respectively.
Music educates the mind/soul; gymnastics educates the
body.
His argument in his Republic is that the mission of physical
education in the schools blends with movements.

Aristotle believed : athletics enables youth to develop

strong, healthy citizens who would defend Athens in time of
war and serve her in time of peace.
Because the health of the mind/soul was contingent on a
healthy body, physical education (gymnastics) was
necessary to insure the health of the mind/soul.
 Herodotus (Herodikos) used physical
education as an aid to medicine as early as the
5th century.
Hippocrates proclaimed the law of use and
disuse of the parts of the body.Muscle atrophy
and weakness are results of disuse.
Xenophon thought of physical education as
important in terms of military. Essential to
success in life is soundness of the mind and
body.
 ROMAN PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES
War was the prestige profession of the Romans,which
necessitated brutal methods for training the body.
After the conquest of Greece, Greek gymnastics were
introduced to the Romans, but they were never received. .
The Romans did not believe in making the body beautiful,
and did not like the nakedness of the performers
The maintenance of health was a worthwhile and natural
goal for the Romans.
The concept of health gymnastics was accepted quickly.
Greek physicians were used to instruct Romans the
benefits of health-related exercises.
 In 476 A.D. The Teutonic Barbarians
sacked Rome, conquered Ravenna and the
Rest of the Western Empire.
It was the fall of the Roman Empire due to
physical deterioration, moral decay, Blood
sport games, and excesses that caused
poor health.
the Colosseum was abandoned and left to
decay.

Physical Education In The Middle Ages

The Christian church, particularly

Catholicism which survived the fall
provided a symbol of stability and order
amidst chaos and fear through intellectual
and spiritual leadership.
Although the Teutonic invasions
supported the value of physical activity,
two movements worked to its advantage
asceticism and scholasticism.
 Asceticism had a belief that evil exists in the body and
therefore it should be subordinated to the spirit,
which is pure. With the exception of ritual dancing
and manual labor, Christians were encouraged to
avoid the pleasures and temptations of the flesh. The
body is possessed of the devil and should be tortured.
Such practices led to poor health.
Monasteries were built where Christians could isolate
themselves from the world and evils. Later, schools
were attached to the monasteries and would not
allow physical education to be part of the curriculum.
 Scholasticism is a highly intellectual philosophy
that emphasized the mind. Although it was
concerned with the development of the mental
or intellectual powers, Scholastics still saw
value of the body as part in the development of
the mind. Instead of focusing on the differences
between the mind and the body, they actually
saw a close relationship between the two.

Body MIND
 Between the 9th and the 14th centuries, people needed
protection.
Chivalry emerged as a kind of education that was
physical, social, and military in nature. There were three
stages in the training for knighthood:
-as a Page from age 7 to 13
-being a Squire from age 14 to 17
Medieval tournament was the most famous of the war
games. It was between two mounted horsemen who
would charge each other with long, wooden lances to
knock the opponent from his horse.
Melee was an event in the tournament where groups of
opposing knights would engage in hand-to-hand combat with
dull swords.
Physical Education In The Renaissance Period

Renaissance was a time of radical change in

European culture. Europe experienced several
vicious wars. Other than the wars, Europe was
ravaged by the Bubonic Plague or Black Death
due to poor understanding of hygiene.

With the emergence of the philosophy of

humanism and its concepts of the universal
man, physical education became more valued.
 Good physical health was believed to promote learning
.
The theory that the body and the soul were
inseparable, that they were indivisible, and that one
was necessary for the optimum functioning of the
other became more popular.
A person needed rest and recreation from study and
work.
The body is needed to be developed for purposes of
health and for preparation for warfare.
 Aeneas Silvio Piccolomini (Pope Pius II) believed that to prepare
children to be good soldiers, He emphasized military skills and
proficiency for Christians to defend themselves from the Turks.
Martin Luthers physical education was a means of obtaining
elasticity of the body, and a medium of promoting health,
advocated music, games and dancing as acceptable pastime, and
believed that people should engage in honorable and useful modes
of exercises so they would not fall into vice and evil pursuits during
leisure hours.
Thomas Elyots recommendations regarding games and sports
came from the classics: running, swimming and hunting, and
because he was familiar with the latest medical teachings of his
time, he claimed six (6) physiological benefits that could be derived
from exercise: aids in digestion, increases appetite, helps in living
longer, warms the body, raises metabolism, and cleanses the body
of its wastes.
 Roger Ascham appreciated the value of exercise as a means of resting
the mind to make it sharper at a later time, and believed that the
necessary activities should involve riding. running, shooting a bow and
a gun, vaulting, leaping, wrestling, swimming, dancing, hawking,
hunting, and playing tennis.

Francois Rabelais believed that physical activities help the students

reach his goal of being a well-rounded individual, these include
horsemanship, martial arts, hunting, and ball playing, running, and
swimming.

Richard Mulcasters book Positions dealt specifically to physical

education: for indoors, he recommended dancing, wrestling, fencing,
and climbing; for outdoors, walking, running, leaping, swimming,
riding, hunting, shooting, and playing ball. He was considered the
father of the modern educational practice including sports in the
schools.
 Physical Education In Europe

Johann Bernhard Basedow founded the Philanthropinum in 1774. His

younger students engaged in Greek Gymnastics contests, such as
running, wrestling, throwing, and jumping;

Johann Christoph Friedrich Gutsmuths legitimized the P.E. profession.

He believed in the promotion of peoples health to have a strong nation.
Gutmuths is considered the real founder of physical education, and
grandfather of physical education.

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi believed that physical education could

develop healthy and cheerful children, and believed that gymnastics
promotes a spirit of union, brotherly association, habits of industry,
openness and frankness of character, personal courage, and manly
conduct when one suffers from pain.
Sport, Physical Education and Play in 19th Century America

When America experienced a cultural

revolution in the 19th century, the American
culture became increasingly urban and
technical. Many Americans became athletes
and spectators. Use of spare time for
recreational activities among adults was less
resisted. Attitudes toward sport changed as
they changed the attitudes toward religion
 The TURVEREIN MOVEMENT catalyzed the
recognition of physical education as important to
American society, thus, the TURNERS became the
pioneers of P.E. in America.
Sport activities came to be seen as an effort to be a
good Christian.
Physicality became a desirable image during the
1850. In the early 1800 playful recreation tended
toward games and less competitive activities.
Sport was distinguished from the activity of games
and play. By late 1800 the concept of competition
and sport became more prevalent.
 Early 20th Century
According to a survey gymnastic programs averaged 15 minutes
daily in the elementary schools and two periods weekly in the
secondary schools.
Jessie Bancroft and Elizabeth Burchenal stressed the importance
of intramural games rather interscholastic competition for girls.
Most institutions of higher learning provided some program of
gymnastics for their students.
Intramural athletics gained more prominence.
Higher standards for teacher education in the field of physical
education were established, and better trained teachers were
produced.
Sports, athletics and team games became more important.
 Golden Twenties (1920 to 1929)

More games, sports, and free play became popular.

Measurement in physical education was emphasized
as a means of grouping the students, measuring
achievements, and motivating performance.
Programs of physical education and sports
continued to expand in schools and colleges.
Elementary school and secondary schools PE
program stressed formal activities; periodic lectures
on hygiene were added in the secondary schools.
Stadium construction increased in the 1920s.
 Depression Years
Health and physical education had a difficult time surviving
in many communities.
Physical educators became more involved in recreation
programs in the agencies and projects concerned with
unemployed persons.
The trend in physical education was away from the formal-
type approach to an informal game-sports approach.
Intramural athletics continued to grow in colleges and
universities.
Womens athletic associations increased in numbers.
 PE in the
Philippines
 Pre-Spanish Period

Physical activities were necessary for existence.

Cockfighting, introduced by the Malays and
considered a favorite sport was a popular.
Dancing was a religious activity with several
purposes and officiated by a priest or a
priestess, who perform the sacrifice. War
dances were performed.
.
 Spanish Period
Cockfighting continued to be a favorite sport
Dancing became a major activity enjoyed by the people.
The Fandanggo, the Jota, the Curacha of Spain; the Polka, and
Mazurka of Central Europe; and the Lanceros and Rigodon of France
were introduced.
Ceremonial dances were performed during religious activities.
Recreational games such as the juego de anillo, juego de prenda, and
the duplo were introduced.
Girls played sungka, siklot, piko, luksong tinik, and hide and seek.
Boys played patintero, sipa, and kite-flying.
Older women played card games.
1867 - There was higher order recreational activities like horse races
that triggered the founding of Manila Jockey Club to supervise the
holding of races once a year, and was closed down in 1880.
 There was no record of formal physical education in the
schools except for gymnastics as reflected in the
curriculum taken by Dr. Jose Rizal during his schooling at
the Ateneo Municipal de Manila. In his autobiography,
Rizal was frequently attacked by fever due to gymnastics
exercises.
Room Gymnastics was made a subject in the curriculum
from Superior Normal School for Women Teachers in
Manila
In 1893, gymnastics was recorded to be a required subject
for all candidates for the Elementary Teachers Certificate
at the Superior Normal School for Men Teachers.
 American Period

1901 Physical exercise was one of the subjects introduced

in the public schools, and regular program of athletics was
developed.
1905 Baseball and track and field were introduced and
taught to young boys.
1909 Athletic program for the schools emphasized the
playing of western sports and coaching of tennis.
1910 Basketball was first introduced as a game for young
girls at the Carnival Meet held in Manila but was later
discontinued in 1914 because it was found very strenuous
for the girls. Later, indoor baseball, tennis, and volleyball
were introduced.
 1911 The Athletic Handbook was published by the Bureau of Education
where the first part prescribed few simple games and relays; the second
part contained the rules for baseball, basketball for girls, volleyball,
indoor baseball, track and field, and lawn tennis.
1914 In cognizant to the implementation of the play for everybody
policy of the Bureau of Education, the Teachers Vacation Assembly started
in Manila to give special training to Filipino teachers to be able to conduct
various physical activities, and in turn recipients of the special training
taught at the provincial normal schools
March 5, 1919 A syllabus entitled Physical education: A Manual for
Teachers was published
1920 Physical Education was made a required subject in all public
schools. A rating of 75%
which was based on attendance in the required exercises is necessary for
promotion every year from grade four to fourth year high school.
 1928 A Summer School for Coaching was opened by the
Office of the National Physical Education Director in
cooperation with the Bureau of Education to help the
public school teachers who are in-charged of athletics to
improve their coaching methods.
1937 Physical Education was made a curricular subject in
the secondary schools where the grade was not only based
on attendance but in proficiency in skills as well. The grade
was included in the computation of the general average.
1938 The Summer School of Physical Education was
opened by the Bureau of Education under the direction of
Serafin Aquino, and was held at the Rizal Memorial Field.
1939 Womens track and field was added in the program
of the National Inter-Scholastics.
 Japanese Period

The Japanese Military Administration obliged

all public schools to perform daily calisthenics
on air called the Radio Taiso, where Japanese
instructors were provided. The demonstration
of the exercise was held in Luneta.
 The 1989 Secondary Education Development Program (SEDP) is
a response to continue pupil development started by the Program
for Decentralized Educational Development in 1982. Based on
DECS Order No. 11, s. 1989, the New Secondary Education
Curriculum (NSEC) of SEDP is cognitive-affective-manipulative-
based and is student-centered and community-oriented. One of
the 8 subject areas in the NSEC is Physical Education, Health and
Music (PEHM).

In the elementary based on DECS Order No. 53, s. 1994, it states

that Physical Education in Grades I and II shall be listed as a
separate additional subject and will be taught daily for 20 minutes
beginning school year 1994 1995 in public elementary schools. It
shall continue to be taught as a component of MAPE in Grades III
to VI.
 THE PHILIPPINE SPORTS COMMISSION
The Philippine Sports Commission (PSC) was created
through Republic Act No. 6847 in 1990 to serve as the
sole policy-making and coordinating body of all
amateur sports development programs and instructions
in the Philippines.

Function: To provide the leadership, formulate the

policies and set the priorities and directions of all
national sports promotion and development,
particularly giving emphasis on grassroots participation.
 THE PHILIPPINE OLYMPIC COMMITTEE

The Philippine Olympic Committee-the umbrella

organization of all national sports associations (NSAs

Function: It is primarily responsible for activities

pertaining to the countrys participation in the Olympic
Games, Asian Games, Southeast Asian Games, and other
international athletic competitions in accordance
respectively with the rules of the International Olympic
Committee, the Olympic Council of Asia, the Southeast
Asian Games Federation, and other international sports
bodies.
 Philippine Participation in the Olympics (1924 2000)

The Philippines was represented for the first time in the World Olympics. It was a two-man
delegation sent by the Philippine Amateur Athletic Federation in the 1924 VIIIth Olympiad in
Paris. David Nepomuceno, a Philippine scout competed in the 100 m. and 200 m. dash and
was eliminated in the trial heats. Dr. Regino R. Ylanan was the representative official and
coach.
1928 (Amsterdam) Teofilo Yldefonso, bronze, 200m backstroke
1932 (Los Angeles) Teofilo Yldefonso, bronze, 200m backstroke
Simeon Toribio, bronze, high jump
Jose Villanueva, bronze, boxing bantamweight
1964 (Tokyo) Anthony Villanueva, silver, boxing featherweight
1988 (Seoul) Leopoldo Serrantes, bronze, boxing flyweight
Arianne Cerdea, gold, bowling, demonstration sport
1992 (Barcelona) Roel Velasco, bronze, boxing lightweight
Bea Lucero and Stephen Fernandez, bronze medals, taekwondo, demonstration sport
1996 Atlanta) Mansueto Velasco, silver, boxing lightweight, bronze, 400m hurdles
 MEDALS and HONORS

Efren Bata Reyes was dubbed as The magician when he became the 1985 Red
9-Ball Open champion for his ability to execute brilliant shots.
Eric Buhain bronze medalist in swimming in the 1990 Beijing Asian Games.
Eugene Torre became Asias first grandmaster at the age of 22.
Elma Muros was the only track athlete who won in different events in the
Southeast Asian Games. She was hailed as the Southeast Asian games heptathlon
queen in 1997.
Francisco Pancho Villa Guilledo was Asias first world champion in boxing and
dubbed as the greatest flyweight of the century.
Gabriel Flash Elorde was dubbed as the greatest Filipino boxer of all time.
Gerald Rosales was an Asian Games silver medalist and Southeast Asian Games
two-time champion in golf.
Jennifer Rosales was a five-time champion in golf in the ladies Amateur open
(1994-1998) before she turned professional.
Lydia de Vega was Asias fastest woman in the 1980s. She brought home the gold
medal twice in arrow in the Asian Games in the 100-meter dash and the silver
medal in the 200m run.
Manny Pacquiao won the International Boxing Federation super bantamweight
championship at the age of 23.
 MikeeCojuangco-Jaworski is the accomplished equestrienne who bagged the
gold medal for the Individual Show jumping competition in the 2002 Asian
Games.
Paeng Nepomuceno is an all-time greatest international bowler with six world
championships to his credit; some considered him as the greatest Filipino
athlete of all time for making it to the Guiness Book of World Records.
Ramon Fernandez was the Philippine Basketball Associations first four-time
Most Valuable player and played in the league for a record of 20 seasons.
Robert Jaworski was one the Philippine Basketball Associations 25 greatest
players of all time. At his time of retirement, he was the oldest professional
basketball player in the world.
Toni Leviste was a delegate to the 2000 Sydney Olympics and part of the
Philippine Team that won silver medal in the 2002 Asian Games show jumping
competition.
Alvin Patrimonio was a four-time Philippine Basketball Association Most
valuable Player, two of which were won back-to-back in 1993 and 1994.
Bong Coo made her mark in the bowling world when she delivered nine
consecutive strikes in 1979. Carlos Loyzaga led the Philippine Team that won
bronze medal in the 1954 World Basketball Championship and four golds.
Dorothy Delasin is the Filipina who has become the youngest Ladies
Professional Golf Association Champion in the last 25 years .
 THE ASIAN GAMES
The Asian Games are held for the purpose of
developing intercultural knowledge and friendship
within Asia. The member countries and regions
affiliated to the Olympic Council of Asia participate
in this multi-sports event. The Games are held every
four years in between the Olympic Games. This was
first conceived in 1950, and the first Asian Games
were held in New Delhi, India in 1951 with its motto
Ever Onward. The 2nd Asian Games was held in
Manila in 1954.
 THE SOUTHEAST ASIAN GAMES

The South East Asian Games were known as the South East Asian
peninsular Games until 1975. When SEAP Games Federation accepted
Indonesia and the Philippines as members, the name was then
changed to South East Asian (SEA) Games. Its aim is to promote
cooperation, understanding and good relations among countries in the
region. It was all started since 1957 by Luang Sukhumnaipradit, the
then Vice President of the Thai Olympic Committee. His efforts
culminated in the first SEAP Games held in Thailand in 1959.
The intention of the SEA Games is to rotate the hosts alphabetically by
nation name which removes the politics of bidding for the games, and
allows the host countries ample time to plan for their turn at the
games. Manila has hosted the 1981, 1991, and 2005 SEA Games.
PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

BRANCH FOCUS General Questions Questions Relative

to physical
Education and Sport

Metaphysics Nature of reality What is the meaning What experiences in a

of existence? What is physical education
real? program will better
enable the individual
to meet the
challenges of the real
world?

Epistemology Nature of knowledge What is true? What is the validity of

and methods of the knowledge
obtaining knowledge pertaining to physical
activity and its
influence on the
development of the
individual/
Logic Systematic and What is the method of What process should
orderly reasoning reasoning that will a researcher use to
lead to the truth? determine the value of
physical education to
program participants?

Axiology Aims and values of How do we determine What is the value of

society what has value, and physical education
on what criteria are programs to the
this judgment based? individual?

Ethics Issues of conduct, What is the highest How can sport be

right and wrong standard of behavior utilized to develop
each person should ethics?
strive to attain?

Aesthetics Nature of beauty and What is beauty? Why are skilled

art performers
movements beautiful
to view?
 Idealism and Physical Education
Physical education involves more than physical.
Emphasis is on the development of the mind and thought processes
although the mind and the body are to develop as one.
Physical fitness and activities are valued for their contribution to the
development of ones personality.
Ideals are emphasized in the physical education and sport
programs.
The activities should give students the opportunity to develop the
qualities of honesty, courage, creativity, and sportsmanship.
The teacher is a role model in terms of character and values.
Self-development is emphasized.
 Realism and Physical Education
One who possesses a physically fit body is the one who may be
productive in society.
Physical education and sport are valuable because of its contribution
to health.
Programs are based on scientific knowledge and orderly progression.
Activities are selected on the basis of scientific evidences from a study
of anatomy, kinesiology, and physiology.
Drills are used extensively.
Learning is evaluated objectively.
The emphasis on teaching is on fundamentals of games and activities
with each skill broken down into its component parts.
Physical education should focus on the total development of the child.
Naturalism and Physical Education
Physical activity is the main source of the total
development of the individual.
Individualized learning through self-activity leads to
the attainment of individual goals.
Play as a natural activity common to all children
should be encouraged because, it is satisfying, healthy,
and a source of pleasure.
Highly competitive performance between individuals
is discouraged; competition against oneself is
encouraged.
 Pragmatism and Physical Education
Variety of activities is presented for meaningful
experiences.
Activities are socializing in nature.
Expression of ability, feelings and wishes are
encouraged both in drawing up the physical education
programs and in executing it.
The curriculum should be based on the needs and
interests of the students.
The child share in planning the physical education
program.
 Existentialism and Physical Education
Within the curriculum, the student is free to choose
from the variety of activities.
The activities provide the students opportunities to
develop self-awareness and self-responsibility.
The program is as diverse as the students who are
involved in it.
The teacher is a counselor who promotes reflective
thinking while allowing the students to make choices,
and deal responsibly with the consequences of those
choices.
PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT
 Stages of Learning
As the student learns motor skills and makes a
transition from unskilled to skilled performer, he
progresses through several stages. At each stage the
physical educator must be cognizant of the
characteristics of the learner to plan for instruction.
Different instructional strategies and techniques are
required at each stage to make practice more
effective.
Cognitive Stage. During this stage the learner is
endeavoring to understand the nature and/or goal of
the activity to be learned.
 Associative Stage. At this point the basics of the skill have been
learned and the learner concentrates on refining the skill. During
this stage the learner works on mastering the timing needed for the
skill. the performance looks smoother, fewer errors are committed,
and the same type of error tends to recur.
Autonomous Stage. This stage is reached after much practice. the
learner can perform the skill consistently with few errors. the skill is
well coordinated and may appear to be performed effortlessly.
During this stage the skill has become almost automatic.

Individuals do not proceed through these stages at the same rate.

Other than knowing the characteristics and the needs of the learner in
various stages, the physical education teacher needs to be aware of the
forces that influence learning.
 Forces Influencing Learning
Readiness. successful acquisition of new information or skills depends
on the individual readiness. Physiological readiness is the learners
readiness to control his body in physical activities to such a degree.
Psychological readiness refers to the learners state of mind; it is ones
feeling or attitude toward learning a particular skill. The desire and
willingness to learn will affect his acquisition of that particular skill.
Level of Development. As psychologist Piaget stated, learning
proceeds most rapidly when instructional experiences are geared to
individuals physical and intellectual abilities. In order for physical
educators to follow this advice, they must understand intellectual,
affective and motor development. Motor development is the study of
the origins of and changes in movement behavior throughout lifespan.
 Motivation. It refers to a condition within an individual that initiates
activity directed toward a goal. Needs and drives form the basic framework
for motivation.
Reinforcement. It is using events, actions, and behavior to increase the
likelihood of a certain response (e.g., a skill or a behavior) recurring. For
reinforcement to be effective it must be meaningful to, important to, or
desired by the recipient.
Individual differences. In any learning situation, the physical educator must
provide for individual differences in social and economic backgrounds,
physical abilities, intelligence and preferred learning styles, and personality.

At this point it will be helpful to consider additional concepts, factors, and

conditions that promote learning of motor skills and improve performance.
 Concepts, Factors, and Conditions that Promote the Learning of
Motor Skills and improve Performance

To promote optimal conditions for learning, practice

sessions should be structured.
The task to be learned must be understood by the
learners.
To be considered when designing practice is the nature
of the skill.
In deciding whether to teach the skill by the whole or
by part method, the nature of the task and the
background of the learner should be considered.
 PLAY THEORISTS
Herbert Spencer believed that play could be used to
expend excess energy, which was necessary for survival.
G. Stanley Hall viewed play and its natural extensions
(games and sport) as ideal mechanisms of
development, an ideal type of exercise for the young,
most favorable for the growth, and most self-regulating.
John Dewey believed that play was not a physical act
that has no meaning, rather it was an activity the
integrated mind and body.
 SOME THEORIES OF PLAY

Surplus-Energy or Spencer Theory expresses the idea of

play as the aimless expenditure of exuberant energy.
(Friedrich Schiller)
Recreation Theory emphasizes the recreative values of
play, and play as a means of revitalization. (Guts Muths)
Relaxation Theory is similar to recreation theory in many
ways. Play is a medium for relaxation in todays mode of
work that leads to nervous disorders if the organism
does not have a means to relax from the works ordeal.
 Physical education should help each
individual inculcate -
Moral responsibilities
Cooperation
Moral equality
Happiness
Spiritual enrichment,
After becoming a member of a group, certain
collections are important for successful
adjustments.
Need for affection the belief that he is liked by the
other members
Belongingness the belief that he is accepted
Independence exemplifies the individuals right to
make his own decisions.
Social approval and Opportunity to Maintain Self-
Esteem