Earths Changing

Crust
 Earth Systems
Although we study four branches of earth
science, there are many interactions between
earths systems. You are standing on the
______sphere. You are breathing in part of the
______sphere. If you went to the beach or
canoed down the James you where visiting the
______sphere. And you and all the other living
things on earth make up the _____sphere.
 Geological Forces That Change The Earths
Crust
INTRODUCTION
third planet closest to the sun
diameter of 12.753 km
mass of 5.98 septillion kg
365.26 days and rotates in 23 hrs, 56 minutes and
4 seconds.
slight bulge is caused by rapid rotation of the earth
on its axis making it spherical in shaped
highest density than any planet
 Terrestrial planet bec.made up of rocks
and metallic minerals (Lithosphere)
Atmosphere 21% free oxygen , 78%
nitrogen, and traces of carbon dioxide
and other gases.
Hydrosphere 75% of water.
only planet that support life
 CAUSES OF EARTH MOVEMENT
Forces that cause crustal movement in the following
theories:
1. CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
proposed by Wegener in 1915.
200 million years ago, large continent was formed
when the earths crust cooled. PANGAEA.
continent granite which is composed mostly of
silicon and aluminum.
lighter granitic rocks than the underlying
materials, w/c is made of basaltic rock composed
mostly of silicon and magnesium.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
Earths continent were once joined together
and later split ,drifted apart.
has been replaced by more complete plate
tectonics theory.
continents broke up and various sections
drifted apart
Atlantic Ocean Africa and South America
broke apart.
The Africa South American Coastline
appear to fit together like adjacent pieces of a jigsaw
puzzle. Alfred Wegener, a German Scientist called
PANGEA a Greek term all lands.
2. SEA FLOOR SPREADING
remains of the continents that parted.
middle of the ridge, running along its length, is a
break or rift from w/c magma flows out to the
surface.
magma hardens into a lava and form a new
ocean floor.
drifting apart of Saudi Arabia from Africa caused the
formation of the RED SEA.
The hypothesis that segments of oceanic crust are
separating at the mid-oceanic ridge and a proposed
gen.model for the origin of the oceanic crust and
used as the basis for the development of much
broader theory about the plate tectonics.
 Mid-Oceanic Ridge System underseas
mountain chain that forms at the boundary
between divergent tectonic plates
Mid-Atlantic plates submarine mountain
chain that lies in the between North America
& South America to the west & Europe and
Africa to the east.
 3. PLATE TECTONICS
lithosphere is divided into large plates.
plates contain the crust and the deeper rock of the
lithosphere of the mantle.
plates are slowly but continually in motion. The
movement is believed to cause the convection
current in the mantle. The movement of the plates
is called TECTONICS. As movement of the plates
goes on, interaction occurs along the plate
boundaries.
Convection upward and downward flow of fluid
material in response to heating and cooling.
slowly occurs in the mantle, more quickly in the
oceans and atmosphere
Lithosphere is segmented into several plates
that move about relative to one another by
floating on and gliding over the plastic
aesthenosphere.
a shell of hard,strong rock about 100
kilometers thick that floats on the hot, plastics
aesthenosphere.
broken into seven large and several smaller
segments called tectonic plateslithosphere
plates.
 PATE BOUNDARY the region where two plates
meet, a fracture /boundary that separates two
tectonic plates.
THERE ARE THREE PLATE BOUNDARIES IDENTIFIED:
1. Divergent or Spreading Plate Boundary an area
Where plates move apart and leaves a gap
between them. The gap is immediately filed up
with molten materials.
New lithosphere is continuously forming also
called a spreading center/rift zone
 Three types of plate boundary

Divergent

Convergent

Transform
 Divergent Boundaries

Spreading ridges
As plates move apart new material is erupted to fill the gap
, a divergent boundary is a linear feature that exists between two tectonic plates that are moving away
from each other. These areas can form in the middle of continents or on the ocean floor.
As the plates pull apart, hot molten material can rise up this newly formed pathway to the surface -
causing volcanic activity.

Presenter: Reiterate the process by going through the diagram, including the presence of mantle
convection cells causing the plates to break apart and also as a source for new molten material.

Where a divergent boundary forms on a continent it is called a RIFT or CONTINENTAL RIFT, e.g.
African Rift Valley.
Where a divergent boundary forms under the ocean it is called an OCEAN RIDGE.
2. Convergent or Colliding Boundary form where two
plates bump or collide into each other.
One plate might undergoes subduction, it goes down
beneath the other lighter plate/two plates of
diff.densities converge & the denser one sinks into the
mantle beneath the other.
a plate boundary where two plates move toward
each other or collide head-on.
Subduction zonea long narrow region at the
convergent boundary where plate is sinking into the
mantle during subduction. Known as subduction
boundary.
Convergent Boundaries
There are three styles of convergent plate boundaries
Continent-continent collision
Continent-oceanic crust collision
Ocean-ocean collision
 Convergent Boundaries
There are three styles of convergent plate
boundaries
Continent-continent collision
Continent-oceanic crust collision
Ocean-ocean collision
 Continent-Continent Collision
Forms mountains, e.g. European Alps, Himalayas
 Continent-Oceanic Crust Collision
Called SUBDUCTION process by w/c two lithosphere
plates of diff.densities converge and denser one sinks into the
mantle beneath the other
Subduction

Oceanic lithosphere subducts

underneath the continental
lithosphere
Oceanic lithosphere heats and
dehydrates as it subsides
The melt rises forming
volcanism
E.g. The Andes
 Ocean-Ocean Plate Collision

When two oceanic plates collide, one runs over the

other which causes it to sink into the mantle forming
a subduction zone.
The subducting plate is bent downward to form a
very deep depression in the ocean floor called a
trench.
The worlds deepest parts of the ocean are found
along trenches.
E.g. The Mariana Trench is 11 km deep!
 Transform Boundaries
Where plates slide past each other

Above: View of the San Andreas

transform fault
 Transform Boundaries
Two tectonic plates slide horizontally past one
another
 3. Transform or Fracture Plate Boundary area
where two plates moves past each
other,sliding,scraping and deforming the edge of
the continents.
Earthquakes and Earth's
Interior
Changes in the Earth Crust
Earthquakes are vibrations
of Earth produced by the
rapid release of energy
from rocks that rupture
because they have been
subjected to stresses
beyond their limit.
 Introduction

365.26 days and rotate in 23

hours, 56 minutes and 4 seconds.
slight bulge at the equator giving
it an elliptical shape.
 Introduction

highest density than any planet

except PLUTO
made up of rocks and metallic
minerals called Lithosphere.
 Earth Systems
1. Lithosphere made up of rocks and
metallic minerals.
2. Atmosphere contains 21% of free
oxygen, 78% nitrogen and traces of
carbon dioxide and other gases.
3. Hydrosphere contains 75% water.
 No body has seen the inside of the
earth, but from the information
gathered by scientists, they were
able to come up with the
following mental mode of the
earths interior.
 Structure of the Earth

Mantle
The Earth is made
up of 3 main Outer core
layers: Inner core
Core
Mantle
Crust

Crust
 The Crust
This is where we live!

The Earths crust is made of:

Continental Crust Oceanic Crust

- thick (10-70km) - thin (~7 km)
- buoyant (less dense - dense (sinks under
than oceanic crust) continental crust)
- mostly old - young
The Crust
The outer most and thinnest layer, average
thickness if 100 km
Consist the lithosphere
The layer where all life on earth exist
It is relatively cooler compared to the layers below,
and consists of hard strong rock
The continents and the ocean floor are parts of the
crust; it is thinnest beneath the ocean and thickest
at the continent
Oceanic crust is between 4-7 km thick, while the
continent crust is around 20-40 km thick
 (1) crust (the very thin outer layer)

The crust and uppermost

mantle form Earth's cool
rigid outer shell called
the lithosphere.
 Lithosphere
Outer part of the Earth, including both the crust
and the uppermost mantle.
100km. in thickness but varies from75km.
beneath the ocean basins,125km.under
continent.
mostly cold, strong upper mantle,
Some parts of the lithosphere have continents
embedded in them, whereas other regions are
topped by oceanic crust.
The continental crust is
primarily made of
granitic rocks, while the
oceanic crust is of
basaltic composition.
 ASTHENOSPHERE
75 TO 125 km.beneath Earths surface
Combined the effects of rising temp.and rising
pressure approaching the melting point of the
mantle.
Most of the mantle is solid, but the upper
mantle is a plastic, moldable zone, partially
melted area called the athenosphere (Greek
for Weak Layer)
From 100 km.Extends to a depth of 350km.
Ave.temp. of 1,800 C
(2) mantle (a rocky layer
located below the crust
with a thickness of 2885
kilometers),
 How do we know what the Earth is
made of?
Geophysical surveys: seismic, gravity, magnetics,
electrical, geodesy
Acquisition: land, air, sea and satellite
Geological surveys: fieldwork, boreholes, mines
 A Mohorovicic Discontinuity or Moho for short is a
boundary between the crust and the mantle name
after Mohorovicic a Yugoslavian scientist
The Mantle
A thick layer surrounding the core, it is almost 2,900
km thick and makes up to 80 % of earths volume
It is composed of peridotite which means is denser
than the basalt and granite of the crust and dark in
color,Top of the mantle has a temp. 1,000 C,near
the core has 3,300 C.
Temperature and pressure increases with depth
(4) inner core (a solid
metallic sphere with a
radius of about 1216
kilometers).
 THE CORE
Innermost part,
Radius of about 3,470km.same as the size of a
Planet Mars.
Nickel and iron
Near its center it has a temp.about 7,000C
Hotter than the Suns surface
Pressure of 3.5millions times that of Earths
atmosphere at sea level.
Extreme pressure in the inner core to a solid,
Hotter in outer core(fluid)
Movements of the Earth

movement of the solid parts of the

earth brought about by the
interaction of forces

forces are push (compression), and

pull (tension)
Diagram of Stress in Earths Crust
 - Forces in Earths Crust

COMPRESSION
The stress force called compression squeezes
rock until it folds or breaks.
 - Forces in Earths Crust

TENSION
The stress force called tension pulls on the crust,
stretching rock so that it becomes thinner in the
middle.
 - Forces in Earths Crust

SHEARING
Stress that pushes a mass of rock in two
opposite directions is called shearing.
 Comparing Types of Stress
Type of Stress Direction of Effect on crust
movement
TENSION PULLS CRUST STRETCHES
APART ROCK-BECOMES
THINNER
COMPRESSION PUSHES CRUST SQUEEZE &
TOGETHER COMPACTS ROCK
SHEARING PUSHES IN ROCK BREAKS,
OPPOSITE TWISTS, OR
DIRECTIONS CHANGES SHAPE
 Types of Earth movement
1. Uplift movement of the earth wherein the crust rises
2. Subsidence a sinking or setting of a part of the
earths crust with respect to the surrounding parts
3. Thrust- ->horizontal movement of the earths crust
Effects of these forces on the Crust:
1. Folding occurs when the crust crumples or wrinkles
due to compression or pushes from opposite
directions.
When the crust crumples it can be compared to a wave
on the ocean. The crest, the up fold or the anticline
would be the hills or mountains. The through, the
down fold or the syncline will be the valleys. Ex: Sierra
Madre and the Cordilleras are folded mountains
EFECTS OF THESE FORCES ON THE CRUST
1. FOLDING occurs when the crust crumples or
wrinkles due to compression or pushes from
opposite directions, When the crust crumples.

The CRUST, the up fold or the anticline would be the

hills or mountains.
The trough, the down fold or the syncline be the
valleys.
2. Faulting occurs when an equal pull and pushes on the crust
from different directions become greater than the elastic
limit of the rocks forming large rocks. Continued pulling and
pushing will form faults. Ex: Marikina faults
Earths internal processes: (Causes the earths movement)
Diastrophism a collective term for the dynamic internal
forces of the earth
The center of the earth is about 6000 degrees Celsius hot
comparable to the sun surface
The heat drives the earths internal engine, creating
earthquakes, volcanic eruption, mountain building, and
continual movements of the continents and ocean floor
These affects our environment atmosphere, biosphere,
hydrosphere
The earths engine and its effects are described by the
following theories of Continental drift, Sea floor
spreading, and Plate tectonics
 How folding changes Earths surface
Folding of rock is caused by compression forces as one
plate pushes against another plate
squish!
Compression makes parts of crust shorter and thicker.
Folds can bend upward like an arch (anticline), or
downward like a valley (syncline).
Compression can form folded mountains in the middle
of a continent (like Appalachians) or at the edges of a
convergent boundary (like Himalayas and Alps)
Fault
Is a break or crack in rock along which movement of
the earths crust occur. A fault can be visible on the
surface of the crust or can be far underground.

Types of faults:

1. Thrust fault - a low angle fault (45 degrees or less)

in which the hanging wall is moved upward in
relation to the foot wall. It is characterized by the
horizontal compression rather than by vertical
displacement.
2.Normal fault also known as the gravity
fault a dip slip fault in which the
hanging wall moves downward relative to
the footwall

3. Reverse fault it is the material above

the fault plane that moves up in relation
to the material below. It shows the
surface area of the crust
 Comparing FAULTS
Type of Fault Stress Effect on crust
NORMAL Tension Pulls rock apart-
up/down motion
(forms at divergent
boundaries

REVERSE Compression Pushes rock together-

down/up motion

STRIKE-SLIP Shearing Plates move past each

other- sideways motion
(transform boundaries)
Earthquakes are vibrations
of Earth produced by the
rapid release of energy
from rocks that rupture
because they have been
subjected to stresses
beyond their limit.
 Earthquakes
Earthquakes
Any sudden movement of the earths crust. Most
earthquakes occur because the large blocks of the
earths move suddenly and violently along a fault.
Focus
The place where an earthquake begins. This is the
center of point inside the earth where rock first breaks
or moves
Epicenter
The point on the earths surface directly above the
focus.
This energy, which takes the
form of waves, radiates
in all directions from the
earthquake's source,
called the focus.
 The movements that
produce most
earthquakes occur along
large fractures, called
faults, that are
associated with plate
boundaries.
Seismic waves

Movements of rock along a fault can

release a tremendous amount of energy
Energy which release from the focus in
the form of shock waves called seismic
waves
Sound waves travelling through and
across the earth that are produced by
earthquakes
Two main groups of seismic
waves are generated during
an earthquake: (1) surface
waves, which travel along
the outer layer of Earth;
and (2) body waves, which
travel through Earth's
interior.
Body waves are further
divided into primary, or
P, waves, which push
(compress) and pull
(expand) rocks in the
direction the wave is
traveling, and
P waves can travel through
solids, liquids, and
gases.
secondary, or S, waves,
which shake the
particles in rock at right
angles to their direction
of travel.
S waves/Secondary waves
These are Shear waves
They travel only through solids;
they travel slowly, about half the
speed of P-wave
Fluids (gases and liquids) will
not transmit S waves.
Types of Seismic waves
3. L -waves/Long waves
These are Surface waves
The most powerful waves
They travel only along the earths
surface and can cause the most
damage; they are responsible for
the shaking that occurs on ground
The location on Earth's
surface directly above the
focus of an earthquake is
the epicenter.
An epicenter determined
using the difference in
velocities of P and S
waves.
The principal earthquake epicenter
zones are along the outer
margin of the Pacific Ocean,
known as the circum-Pacific
belt and through the world's
oceans along the oceanic ridge
system.
Seismologists use two
fundamentally different
measures to describe the
size of an earthquake
intensity and magnitude.
Intensity measure of the
degree of ground shaking
Modified Mercalli Intensity
Scale uses to estimate the
intensity of ground shaking
for a local earthquake.
EX: earthquake in
california
Magnitude calculated from
seismic records and
estimates the amount of
energy released at the
source of an earthquake.
logarithmic scale is used to
express magnitude, in
which a tenfold increase in
ground shaking
corresponds to an increase
of 1 on the magnitude
scale.
Moment magnitude used
to estimate the size of
moderate and large
earthquakes.
It is calculated using the
1.average displacement of
the fault,
2. the area of the fault
surface
3. the sheer strength of
the faulted rock.
Structural damage attributable
to earthquake vibrations
depends on several factors
1. ) intensity
2. duration of the
vibrations
(3) nature of the material
upon which the structure
rests
4. the design of the
structure
Secondary effects of
earthquakes include
tsunamis, landslides,
ground subsidence, and
fire.
Substantial research to
predict earthquakes is
under way in Japan, the
United States, China, and
Russiacountries where
earthquake risk is high.
Using the Richter scale, the
magnitude of an
earthquake is estimated
by measuring the
amplitude (maximum
displacement) of the
largest seismic wave
recorded.
Long-range forecasts are
based on the premise
that earthquakes are
repetitive or cyclical.
Seismologists study the
history of earthquakes
for patterns, so their
occurrences might be
predicted.
 Classification of Earthquake
1.Tectonic earthquake-Very strong and destructive. The
tremors are due to the sudden of the earths crust
along fault.
2.Volcanic earthquake-weaker and less destructive. This
is produced by the pressure generated by the magma
rising through faults towards the earths surface or
from explosive volcanic activity.
3. Man made quakes these man made reservoirs and
deep wells that lead to an increase in the pore-
Water pressure of underlying rock, also increase in
water content may lubricate the existing fracture zone
And may lead to active faulting.
 Determinating strength of an
Earthquake
1. Magnitude-A measure of the total amount of
energy released by an earthquake at its source. The
Richter scale is universally used in determinating
magnitude of an earthquake. It measures the height
of the largest wave recorded on the seismograph.
2. Intensity-a measure of the effects of an
earthquake on human life. Instruments used are
Rossi - Forrel Intensity scale (used in the
Philippines) and Modified Mercalli scale (used in
U.S.).
 The Richter magnitude scale
Magnitude below 1 only detectable when ultra
sensitive seismometer is used under favorable
conditions.
Magnitude 2-3 hardly to perceptible shock.
Magnitude3-4 very feeble shock.
Magnitude 5-6 earthquake of moderate strength.
Magnitude 6-7 Strong earthquakes.
Magnitude 7-8 Major earthquakes
Magnitude 8-9 Great earthquake.
Magnitude over 9 never occurred records.
 Rossi Forel Intensity scale
Intensity I hardly perceptible shock.
Intensity II extremely feebly shock.
Intensity III very feeble shock.
Intensity IV feeble shock.
Intensity V Shock of moderate intensity
Intensity VI fairly strong shock
Intensity VII strong shock
Intensity VIII very strong shock
Intensity IX extremely strong shock