Projectile, Uniform Circular Motion, Relative Velocity

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Extend the descriptions of motion to two-
dimensional situations.
Use vector quantities such as displacement,
velocity, acceleration with two components, not
lying along a single line.
Discover how motion takes place in two
dimensions, that is, a plane.
Describe motions in a plane with two coordinates
and two components of velocity and acceleration.
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Consider how the motion of a particle is described
by different observers who are moving relative to
each other. (Relative velocity)
Merge the vector language with kinematics.
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_. Position and Velocity Vectors
2. The Acceleration Vector
3. Projectile Motion
4. Motion in a Circle
5. Relative Velocity
6. Concept Summary and Key Equations
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A projectile is any body that is given an initial

velocity and then follows a path determined entirely
by the effects of gravitational acceleration and air
resistance.
Examples: a batted baseball, a package dropped
from an airplane, and a bullet shot from a rifle.
The path followed by a projectile is called its
trajectory.
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Projectile motion is always confined to a vertical

plane determined by the direction of the initial
velocity.
Acceleration due to gravity is purely vertical, thus
the projectile motion is two-dimensional.
Key to analyzing such problems is to treat the -
and -coordinates separately.
The -component of acceleration
is zero, and -component is
constant and equal to þ.
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So projectile motion is a combination of horizontal

motion with constant velocity and vertical motion
with constant acceleration.
T
The components of R are:
þ X_
We usually use þ · 9.8 m/s2.
Substitute 0 for in Eqns 2.8 and 2._2,
´ ´ X_
´ ÷ X_
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For -motion, we substitute for , 4 for 4, 4 for

4, and · þ for : þ÷ X_
_
÷ þ÷ X_

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T
We can also represent the initial velocity Õ by its
magnitude 4 and its angle r with the positive -
axis:
´ ´ ´ ´ X_
Use the relationships in Eqns 3._5, 3._6, 3._ and
3._8 and setting

,
X´ ÷ X
_
X´ ÷ þ÷ X_

´ ´ X
´ ´ þ÷ X
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At any time, the distance of the projectile from the

origin is given by:
X
The projectile¶s speed at any time is
X
Direction of velocity, in terms of angle r it makes
with positive -axis is

r X

T
The velocity vector Õ is tangent to the trajectory at
each pt.
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Problem-solving strategy (Projectile Motion)

NOTE:
The strategies we used in Sections 2.4 and 2.5
for straight-line, constant-acceleration problems
are also useful here.
IDENTIFY:
_. The key concept to remember is that
throughout projectile motion, the acceleration
is downward and has a constant magnitude þ.
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IDENTIFY:
2. Be on the lookout for aspects of the problem
that do involve projectile motion. For
example, the projectile-motion equations don¶t
apply to throwing a ball, because during the
throw the ball is acted on by both the
thrower¶s hand and gravity. These equations
come into play only after the ball leaves the
thrower¶s hand.
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SET UP:
_. Define your coordinate system and make a
sketch showing your axes. Usually it¶s easiest
to place the origin at the initial (÷
) position
of the projectile.
2. Also, it¶s usually best to take the -axis as
being horizontal and the -axis as being
upward. Then the initial position is
and

, and the components of the (constant)
acceleration are

þ
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SET UP:
3. List the unknown and known quantities, and
decide which unknowns are your target
variables.
4. In some problems you¶ll be given the initial
velocity (either in terms of components or in
terms of magnitude and direction) and asked
to find the coordinates and velocity
components at some later time.
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SET UP:
5. In other problems you might be given two
points on the trajectory and asked to find the
initial velocity. In any case, you¶ll be using
Eqns 3.20 through 3.23. Make sure that you
have as many equations as there are target
variables to be found.
6. It often helps to state the problem in words
and then translate those words into symbols.
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EXECUTE:
_. Use Eqns 3.20 through 3.23 to find the target
variables. (Certain other equations given in
Section 3.3 may be useful as well.)
2. As you do so, resist the temptation to break
the trajectory into segments and analyze each
segment separately. You don¶t have to start
all over, with a new axis and a new time
scale, when the projectile reaches its highest
point!
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EXECUTE:
3. It¶s almost always easier to set up Eqs. (3.20)
through (3.23) at the start and continue to use
the same axes and time scale throughout the
problem.
EVALUATE:
_. As always, look at your results to see whether
they make sense and whether the numerical
values seem reasonable.
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! "
!
A motorcycle stunt rider rides off the edge of a cliff.
Just at the edge his velocity is horizontal, with
magnitude 9.0 m/s. Find the motorcycle's position,
distance from the edge of the cliff, and velocity after
0.50 s.
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#$%&'
We choose the origin at the edge of the cliff,
where the motorcycle first becomes a projectile,
so
and
.
The initial velocity is purely horizontal (that is,
r0 · 0), so the initial velocity components are
0 · 0 cos r0 · 9.0 m/s and 0 · 0 sin r0 ·
0.
To find the motorcycle's position at time ÷ ·
0.50 s, we use Eqns. 3.20 and 3.2_, which give
and as functions of time.
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#$%&'
Set Up:
Given these values, we find the distance from the
origin using Eqn. 3.24. Finally, we determine the
velocity at ÷ · 0.50 s with Eqns. 3.22 and 3.23, which
give and as functions of time.
Execute:
Where is the motorcycle at ÷ · 0.50 s? From Eqns.
3.20 and 3.2_, the ° and ¢-coordinates are
´ ÷ X 2/s X s 2
_ _
þ÷

X
2/s X s
_ 2
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#$%&'
The negative value of shows that at this time the

motorcycle is below its starting point. What is the
motorcycle's distance from the origin at this time?
From Eqn. 3.24,
X m X _ m m
What is the velocity at time ÷ · 0.50 s? From Eqns.
3.22 and 3.23, the components of velocity at this time
are ´ ´ 2/s
´ þ÷ X 2/s X s 2/s
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#$%&'
The motorcycle has the same horizontal velocity as

when it left the cliff at ÷ · 0, but in addition there is a
vertical velocity directed downward (in the negative
-direction). If we use unit vectors, the velocity at ÷ ·
0.50 s is ÕT ´ ´ O X 2/s X 2/s O

We can also express the velocity in terms of
magnitude and direction. From Eqn. 3.25, the speed
(magnitude of the velocity) at this time is

X m/s X m/s _ m/s

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#$%&'
From Eqn. 3.26, the angle r of the velocity vector is

´

´
2/s

2/s
At this time the velocity is 29' below the horizontal.
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() *

* +
A batter hits a baseball so that it leaves the bat with
an initial speed 0 · 3 .0 m/s at an initial angle r0 ·
53._', at a location where þ · 9.80 m/s2. (a) Find the
position of the ball, and the magnitude and direction
of its velocity, when ÷ · 2.00 s. (b) Find the time when
the ball reaches the highest point of its flight and find
its height at this point. (c) Find the á
4ß that is, the horizontal distance from the starting
point to the point at which the ball hits the ground. For
each part, treat the baseball as a projectile.
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() *

* +
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(#$%&'
Identify:
The effects of air resistance on the motion of a
baseball aren't really negligible. For the sake of
simplicity, however, we'll ignore air resistance for this
example. Instead, we'll use the projectile-motion
equations to describe the motion.
Set Up:
We use the same coordinate system as in Figure 3._8.
Then we can use Eqns. 3.20 through 3.23 without any
modifications. Our target variables are
(_) the position and velocity of the ball 2.00 s after it
leaves the bat, (2) the elapsed time after leaving the
bat when the ball is at its maximum height; when · 0;
and the -coordinate at this time,
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(#$%&'
Set Up:
and (3) the °coordinate at the time when the -
coordinate is equal to the initial value 0àThe ball is
probably struck a meter or so above ground level, but
we neglect this distance and assume that it starts at
ground level ( 0 · 0). The initial velocity of the ball has
components
´ ´ X 2/s _ 2/s
´ ´ X 2/s _ 2/s
Execute:
(a) We want to find ð ð and ¢ at time ÷ · 2.00 s.
From Eqns. 3.20 through 3.23,
´ ÷ X 2/s X s 2
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(#$%&'
Execute:
(a) We want to find ð ð and ¢ at time ÷ · 2.00 s.
From Eqns. 3.20 through 3.23,
_
÷ þ÷

_
X
X m/s X s m/s X s

m
´ ´ 2/s
´ ´ þ÷ X
2/s 2/s X s
_ 2/s
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(#$%&'
Execute:
(a) The -component of velocity is positive, which
means that the ball is still moving upward at this time.
The magnitude and direction of the velocity are found
from Eqns. 3.25 and 3.26:
´ ´ ´
X 2/s
X_ 2/s
2/s
_ m/s
r
m/s
The velocity is 24.2' above the horizontal.
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(#$%&'
Execute:
(b) At the highest point, the vertical velocity is zero.
When does this happen? Call the time ÷_ßthen
_
´ ÷_ þ÷_

_
X
X 2/s X s 2/s X s

2
Alternatively, we can apply the constant-acceleration
formula Eqn 2._3 to the -motion:

´ ´ X ´ þX
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(#$%&'
Execute:
(b) At the highest point, · 0 and · àSubstituting
these, along with · 0, we find

þ

X m/s
m
þ X
m/s
(c) We'll find the horizontal range in two steps. First,

uá does the ball hit the ground? This occurs when
· 0. Call this time ÷ßthen
_ _
÷ þ÷ ÷ þ÷

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(#$%&'
Execute:
(c) This is a quadratic equation for ÷àIt has two roots,
´ X 2/s
÷ ÷
s
þ 2/s
There are two times at which · 0; ÷ · 0 is the time
the ball
the ground, and · 6.04 s is the time
of its return. This is exactly twice the time to reach the
highest point, so the time of descent equals the time
of ascent. (This is utrue if the starting and end
points are at the same elevation and air resistance
can be neglected. We will prove this in Example 3._0.)
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(#$%&'
Execute:
(c) The horizontal range 4 is the value of when the
ball returns to the ground, that is, at ÷ · 6.04 s:
4 ÷ X m/s X s _ m
The vertical component of velocity when the ball hits
the ground is
X
þ÷ m/s m/s X s
m/s
That is, has the same magnitude as the initial
vertical velocity but the opposite direction (down).
Since is constant, the angle r · 53._' (below
the horizontal) at this point is the negative of the
initial angle r · 53._'.
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(#$%&'
Evaluate:
Do our numerical results make sense? The maximum
height · 44. m in part (b) is roughly half the height
above the playing field of the roof of Sky dome in
Toronto. The horizontal range 4 · _34 m in part (c) is
greater than the 93.6-m distance from home plate to
the right-field fence at Pacific Bell Park in San
Francisco. Can you show that when the baIl reaches
this fence, it is 3 . m above the ground? (This height
is more than enough to clear the fence, so this ball is
a home run.)
If the ball could continue to travel on ! uits original
level (through an appropriately shaped hole in the
ground), then negative values of ðcorresponding to
times greater than 6.04 s, would be possible.
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(#$%&'
Evaluate:
Can you compute the position and velocity at a time
.55 s after the start, corresponding to the last
position shown in Figure 3._8? The results are
· _68 m · 22.2 m/s
· -55.8m · 44.4 m/s
It's worth pointing out that in real life, a batted ball
with the initial speed and angle we've used here won't
go as high or as far as we've calculated. (If it did,
home runs would be far more com-mon and baseball
would be a far less interesting game.) The reason is
that air resistance, which we neglected in this
example, is actually an important factor at the typical
speeds of pitched and batted balls.
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," -

-!
A clever monkey escapes from the zoo. The zoo
keeper finds him in a tree. After failing to entice the
monkey down, the zoo keeper points her tranquilizer
gun directly at the monkey and shoots. The clever
monkey lets go at the same instant the dart leaves
the gun barrel, intending to land on the ground and
escape. Show that the dart luhits the monkey,
regardless of the dart's muzzle velocity (provided that
it gets to the monkey before he hits the ground).
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," -

-!
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,#$%&'
Identify:
In this example we have u objects in projectile
motion: the tranquilizer dart and the monkey. The dart
and the monkey have different initial positions and
initial velocities, but they go into projectile motion at
the same time. To show that the dart hits the monkey,
we have to prove that at some time the monkey and
the dart have the same x-coordinate and the same -
coordinate.
Set Up:
We make the usual choice for the ° and -directions,
and place the origin of coordinates at the end of the
barrel of the tranquilizer gun.
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,#$%&'
Set Up:
We'll first use Eqn. 3.20 to find the time ÷ when the -
coordinates 2¢ and p are the same. We'll then
use Eqn. 3.2_ to check whether 2¢ and p are
also equal at this time; if they are, the dart hits the
monkey.
Execute:
The monkey drops straight down, so 2¢ · p at all
times. For the dart, Eqn. 3.20 tells us that p · (0

r0)÷àWhen these -coordinates are equal, p · Ä
r0K÷ðor p
÷
´
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,#$%&'
Execute:
To have the dart hit the monkey, it must be true that
2¢ · p at this same time. The monkey is in one-
dimensional free fall; his position at any time is given
by Eqn. 2._2, with appropriate symbol changes.
Figure 3.24 shows that the monkey's initial height is p
r (the opposite side of a right triangle with angle
r and adjacent side pKðand we find
_
2¢ p r þ÷

For the dart we use Eqn. 3.2_:
_
X´ ÷ þ÷

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,#$%&'
Execute:
So we see that if p r · (
r)÷ at the time
when the two -coordinates are equal, then 2¢ ·
p and we have a hit. To prove that this happens, we
replace ÷ with püÄ r), the time when 2¢ · p;
then p
X r ÷ X r p r
r
Evaluate:
We have proved that at the time the -coordinates are
equal, the -coordinates are also equal; a dart aimed
at the initial position of the monkey always hits it, no
matter what is.
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,#$%&'
Evaluate:
This result is also independent of the value of þ, the
acceleration due to gravity. With no gravity (þ · 0),
the monkey would remain motionless, and the dart
would travel in a straight line to hit him. With gravity,
both "fall" the same distance Äà þ÷2Kbelow their þ · 0
positions, and the dart still hits the monkey.
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./) *

* +
For a projectile launched with speed at initial angle
r (between 0' and 90'), derive general expressions
for the maximum height and horizontal range 4. For a
given ð what value of r gives maximum height?
What value gives maximum horizontal range?
Solution:
Identify:
This is really the same exercise as parts (b) and (c) of
Example 3.8. The difference is that we are looking for
general expressions for hand 4àWe'll also be looking
for the values of r that give the maximum values of
hand 4à
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./#$%&'
Set Up:
As in Example 3.8, we use the coordinate system
shown in Fig. 3._8. For convenience we choose the
origin to be at the initial position of the projectile. To
determine the height áat the high point of the
trajectory, we use Eqn. 3.23 to find the time ÷_ at which
· 0, then find the ¢-coordinate at this time with Eqn.
3.2_. To determine 4ðwe first use Eqn. 3.2_ to find the
time ÷2 at which · 0 (i.e., when the projectile returns to
its initial height), then substitute ÷2 into Eqn. 3.20 to
determine the °coordinate at ÷2.
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./#$%&'
Execute:
From Eqn. 3.23, the time ÷_ when · 0 is given by
the equation ´
´ ´ þ÷_ ÷_
þ
Then, from Eqn. 3.2_, the height at this time is

´ _ ´
´ þ
þ þ
´
þ
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./#$%&'
Execute:
If we vary rðthe maximum value of occurs when
r · _ and r · 90'; that is, when the projectile is
launched straight up. That's what we should expect.
If it is launched horizontally, as in Example 3. ,
r · 0 and the maximum height is zero!
To find a general expression for the horizontal range
4ðwe first find the time ÷ at which · 0. From Eqn.
3.2_, ÷2 satisfies the equation
_ _
X´ ÷ þ÷ ÷ ´ þ÷

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./#$%&'
Execute:
The two roots of this quadratic equation for ÷2 are ÷2 ·
0 (the time of launch) and ÷2 · (2 sinrK/þàThe
horizontal range 4 is the value of at the second
time. From Eqn. 3.20,
´
X´
þ
We can now use the trigonometric identity 2 r0
r0 · sin 2r0 to rewrite this as
r
4
þ
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./#$%&'
Execute:
The maximum value of sin 2r is _; this occurs when
2r · 90', or r · 45'. This angle gives the
maximum range for a given initial speed.
Evaluate:
Figure 3.25 is based on a composite photograph of
three trajectories of a ball projected from a spring
gun at angles of 30', 45', and 60'. The initial
speed 0 is approximately the same in all three cases.
The horizontal ranges are nearly the same for the
30' and 60' angles, and the range for 45' is
greater than either.
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./#$%&'
Evaluate:
Can you prove that for a given value of the range
is the same for an initial angle ao as for an initial
angle 90' rù
Comparing the expressions for ÷_ and ÷ðwe see that
÷ · 2÷_; that is, the total flight time is twice the time up
to the highest point. It follows that the time to reach
the highest point equals the time to fall from there
back to the initial elevation, as we asserted in
Example 3.8.
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.. ++

+
*
You toss a ball from your window 8.0 m above the
ground. When the ball leaves your hand, it is moving
at _0.0 m/s at an angle of 20' below the horizontal.
How far horizontally from your window will the ball hit
the ground? Ignore air resistance.
Solution:
Identify:
As in our calculation of the horizontal range in
Examples 3.8 and 3._0, we are trying to find the
horizontal coordinate of a projectile when it is at a
given value of àThe difference here is that this value
of is equal to the initial -coordinate.
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..#$%&'
Set Up:
Once again we choose the -axis to be horizontal and
the -axis to be upward. We place the origin of
coordinates at the point where the ball leaves your
hand, so that the ball's initial coordinates are · 0,
· 0. We have · _0.0 m/s and r · 20'; the angle
is negative because the initial velocity is below the
horizontal.
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..#$%&'
Set Up:
Our target variable is the value of at the point where
the ball reaches the ground; when · 8.0 m.
Because the initial and final heights of the ball are
different, we can't simply use the expression for the
horizontal range found in Example 3._0. Instead, we
first use Eqn. 3.2_ to find the time ÷ when the ball
reaches · 8.0 m, then calculate the value of at
this time, using Eqn. 3.20.
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..#$%&'
Execute:
To determine ÷ðwe rewrite Eqn. 3.2_ in the standard
form for a quadratic equation for ÷Ö
_
þ÷ X´ ÷

The roots of this equation are
´ X ´ _
þ
÷
_
þ

´ ´ þ
þ
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..#$%&'
Execute:
X_ 2/s X
Ú
÷

X
X_ 2/s X 2/s X 2 Ú
2/s
We can discard the negative root, since it refers to a
time before the ball left your hand. The positive root
tells us that the ball takes 0.98 s to reach the ground.
From Eqn. 3.20, the ball's -coordinate at that time is
X´ ÷ X_ 2/s X X s
2
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..#$%&'
Execute:
The ball hits the ground a horizontal distance of 9.2 m
from your window.
Evaluate:
The root ÷ · _. s is an example of a "fictional"
solution to a quadratic equation. We discussed these
in Example 2.8 in Section 2.5; you should review that
discussion. With our choice of origin we had initial and
final heights · 0 and · 8.0 m. Can you use Eqns.
3._6 and 3._8 to show that you get the same answers
for ÷ and if you choose the origin to be at the pt on
the ground directly below where the ball leaves your
hand?
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0|

Uniform circular motion
Uniform circular motion refers to a particle moving
in a circle with constant speed.
Examples: a satellite moving in a circular orbit, an
ice skater skating in a circle, a car rounding a
curve with constant radius at constant speed.
The acceleration in uniform circular motion is
perpendicular to the velocity at each instant.
The acceleration vector at each pt in the circular
path is directed toward the centre of the circle.
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0|

Figure shows a particle moving with constant speed
in a circular path of radius 4 with centre at .
The particle moves from _ to in time ÷.
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0|

Angles labeled A in the figures are the same
T T
because Õ_ is perpendicular to the line _ and Õ is
perpendicular to the line .
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0|

Hence triangles _ and _ are similar. Ratios
of corresponding sides are equal, so
T
Õ ` T ´_
Õ `
´_
Magnitude of average acceleration during Ä÷ is

T
Õ ´_ `

÷ ÷
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0|

T
Magnitude a of instantaneous acceleration R at pt
_ is the limit of this expression as we move gets
closer to pt _: T T
T Õ _ Ä` Õ _ Ä`
R 2 2
Ä÷ 4 Ä ÷ 4 Ä÷ Ä ÷
But limit of Ä`/Ä÷ is speed 4_ at pt _. Also _ can be
any pt on the path, so we drop the subscript and let
4 represent speed at any pt:
´
X

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0|

The subscript ³rad´ is added
as a reminder that the direction
of the instantaneous acceleration
at each pt is always along a
radius of the circle, toward its
centre.
In uniform circular motion, the magnitude a of the
instantaneous acceleration is equal to the square of
the speed 4 divided by the radius 4 of the circle.
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0|

T
Its direction is perpendicular to Õ and inward along
the radius. Because it is always directed toward the
centre of the circle, it is sometime called centripetal
acceleration.
We also express the magnitude of the acceleration
in uniform circular motion in terms of the period of
the motion (time for one revolution around circle).
Thus, its speed is
2 4
X

| |

0|

When we substitute this into Eqn 3.28, we get

'
r
X

| |

.1

A BMW Z4 roadster has a "lateral acceleration" of
0.8 þðwhich is (0.8 )(9.8 m/s2) · 8.5 m/s2. This
represents the maximum centripetal acceleration
that can be attained without skidding out of the
circular path. If the car is traveling at a constant 40
m/s (about 89 mi/h, or _44 km/h), what is the
minimum radius of curve it can negotiate? (Assume
that the curve is unbanked.)
| |

.1#$%&'
IDENTIFY And SET UP:
Because the car is moving along a curve; a segment
of a circle; at a constant speed, we can apply the
ideas of uniform circular motion. In particular, we can
use Eqn. 3.28 to find the target variable 4 (the radius
of the curve) in terms of the given centripetal
acceleration p and speed à
Execute:
We are given p and ðso we solve Eqn. 3.28 for 4Ö
´ X 2/s
_ 2
2/s
| |

.1#$%&'
Evaluate:
Our result shows that the required turning radius 4 is
proportional to the of the speed. Hence even
a small reduction in speed can make 4 substantially
smaller. For example, reducing by 20% (from 40 to
32 m/s) would decrease 4 by 36% (from _90 m to
_20 m).
Another way to make the required turning radius
smaller is to !the curve. We will investigate this
option in Chapter 5.
| |

.

In a carnival ride, the passengers travel at constant
speed in a circle of radius 5.0 m. They make one
complete circle in 4.0 s. What is their acceleration?
Solution:
The speed is constant, so this is a problem involving
uniform circular motion. We are given the radius
4 · 5.0 m and the period · 4.0 s, so we can use
Eqn. 3.30 to calculate the acceleration. Alternatively,
we can first calculate the speed using Eqn. 3.29,
then find the acceleration using Eqn. 3.28.
| |

.#$%&'
Execute:
From Eqn. 3.30,

X 2

_ 2/s
X s
We'll check this answer by using Eqn. 3.28 after first
determining the speed àFrom Eqn. 3.29, the speed
is the circumference of the circle divided by the
period Ö 4 X m
m/s
s
| |

.#$%&'
Execute:
The centripetal acceleration is then
X m/s
p _ m/s
4 m
Happily, we get the same answer for p with both
approaches.
Evaluate:
T
As in the preceding example, the direction of R is
always, towardTthe center of the circle. The
magnitude of R is greater than þðthe acceleration due
to gravity, so this is not a ride for the faint-hearted.
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0|

Non-Uniform Circular Motion
During circular motion, if the particle¶s speed
varies, we call it non-uniform circular motion.
Example: a roller coaster car that slows down and
speeds up as it moves around a vertical loop.
In non-uniform circular motion, Eqn 3.28 still gives
the radial component of acceleration p · 44,
which is always perpendicular to instantaneous
velocity and directed toward the centre of the
circle.
But since 4 is not constant, value of p is not
constant.
| |

0|

The radial (centripetal) acceleration is greatest at
the pt in the circle where the circle is greatest.
There is also a component of acceleration that is
parallel to instantaneous velocity.
We call it to emphasize that it is tangent to the
circle.
The tangential component of acceleration is
equal to rate of change of speed. Thus
T
´ pÕ
X_
p÷
| |

0|

The vector acceleration of a
particle moving in a circle
with varying speed is the
vector sum of the radial
and tangential components
of accelerations.
The tangential component is
in the same direction as the velocity if particle is
speeding up, and is in opposite direction if particle
is slowing down.
| |

2 3 !
When 2 observers measure the velocity of a
moving body, they get different results if one
observer is moving relative to the other.
Thus, the velocity seen by one of the observers is
called the relative velocity.
Relative velocity in One Dimension
Before calculating relative velocity, we need to
specify which observer we mean, or simply a frame
of reference.
| |

2 3 !
In straight-line motion the position of a pt P relative
to frame of reference A is given by the distance
(position of with respect to ).
And the position
relative to frame
is given by
The distance from
origin of to origin
of is s .
| |

2 3 !
We can see from the figure that
V V X
The velocity of relative

to frame , denoted
by 4, is the derivative
of with respect to time.
Other velocities are
similarly obtained.
| |

2 3 !
Thus, the time derivative of Eqn 3.32 is
p V p p V
p÷ p÷ p÷

´ V ´ ´ V X
In general, if and are any two points or frames

of reference,
X
| |

|
Problem-solving strategy (Relative Velocity)

IDENTIFY:
_. Whenever you see the phrase ³velocity
relative to´ or ³velocity with respect to,´ it¶s
likely that the concepts of relative velocity will
be helpful.
SET UP:
_. Label each frame of reference in the problem.
2. Each moving object has its own frame of
reference; and you¶ll almost always have to
include the frame of reference of the earth¶s
surface.
| |

|

SET UP:
3. Use the labels to help identify the target
variable. For example, if you want to find the
velocity of a car (@) with respect to a bus (),
your target variable is 4@
EXECUTE:
_. Solve for the target variable using Eqn 3.33.
(If the velocities are not along the same
direction, you¶ll need to use the vector form of
this equation, derived later in this section.)
| |

|

EXECUTE:
2. Note the order of the double subscripts in Eqn
3.33: 4 always means ³velocity of relative
to .´
3. These subscripts obey an interesting kind of
algebra, as Eqn 3.33 shows. If we regard
each one as a fraction, then the fraction on
the left side is the i of the fractions on
the right sides.
| |

|

EXECUTE:
4. This handy rule you can use when applying
Eqn 3.33 to any number of frames of reference.
For example, if there are three different frames
of reference , , and @, we can write
immediately ´ V ´ ´ ´ V
EVALUATE:
_. Be on the lookout for stray minus signs in your
answer.
| |

|

EVALUATE:
2. If the target variable is the velocity of a car
relative to a bus (4@), make sure that you
haven¶t accidentally calculated the velocity of
the ! relative to the (4@).
3. If you have made this mistake, you can recover
using Eqn 3.34.
| |

.02 !
*
You are driving north on a straight two-lane road at a
constant 88 km/h. A truck traveling at a constant
_04 km/h approaches you (in the other lane,
fortunately).
(a) What is the truck's velocity relative to you?
(b) What is your velocity with respect to the truck?
(c) How do the relative velocities
change after you and the truck
have passed each other?
| |

.0#$%&'
Let you be ´, the truck be , and the earth's surface
be , and let the positive direction be north. Then
your velocity relative to the earth is ´ · +88 km/h.
As the truck is initially approaching you, it must be
moving south and its velocity with respect to the earth
is · _04 km/h. The target variable in part (a) is
´ßthe target variable in
part (b) is ´ We'll find the answers
for both parts of the problem by using
the equation for relative velocity,
Eqn. 3.33.
| |

.0#$%&'
Execute:
(a) To find ´ we first write Eqn. 3.33 for the three
frames ´, , and , and then rearrange:
´ ´
´ ´
_ km/h km/h _ km/h
The truck is moving _92 km/h south relative to you.
(b) From Eq. (3.34),
´ ´ X _ km/h _ km/h
You are moving _92 km/h north relative to the truck.
| |

.0#$%&'
Execute:
(c) The relative velocities don't change at all after you
and the truck have passed each other. The relative
positions of the bodies don't matter. The velocity of
the truck relative to you is still _92 km/h, but it is now
moving away from you instead of toward you.
Evaluate:
As a check on your answer in part (b), try using Eqn.
3.33 directly in the form ´ · ´ + ð(Remember
that the velocity of the earth with respect to the truck
is the opposite of the velocity of the truck with respect
to the earth: · ). Do you get the same result?
| |

2 3 !
Relative Velocity in Two or Three Dimensions
We can extend the concept of relative velocity to
include motion in a plane or in space by using
vector addition to combine the velocities.
Suppose woman in figure is not walking down the
aisle of the railroad car but from one side to the car
to the other, thus we can describe her position in
two difference frames of reference:
i for the stationary ground observer, and
i for the moving train.
| |

2 3 !
| |

2 3 !
Instead of coordinates , we use position vectors T
because the problem is now two-dimensional. Then
T T T
V V X
We take the time derivative of this equation to get a
relation among the various velocities; velocity of
relative to is T T and so on. We get
p p÷
T T T
Õ Õ Õ X
If all three velocities lie along the same line, then
Eqn 3.36 reduces to Eqn 3.33.
| |

2 3 !
As in the case of motion along a straight line, we
have the general rule that if A and B are any two
pts or frames of reference,
T T
Õ Õ X
Eqn 3.36 is also known as the Galilean velocity
transformation.
| |

.4!
*

The compass of an airplane indicates that it is headed due
north, and its airspeed indicator shows that it is moving
through the air at 240 km/h. If there is a wind of _00 km/h from
west to east, what is the velocity of the airplane relative to the
earth?
Solution:
IDENTIFY and SET UP:
This is clearly a relative velocity problem, and we will use Eqn.
3.36 to find the velocity of the plane (v) relative to the earth ().
We are given the magnitude and direction of the velocity of the
plane relative to the air ().
| |

.#$%&'
IDENTIFY and SET UP:
We are also given the magnitude and direction of the
wind velocity, which is the velocity of the air with
T
respect to the earth: Õ km/h due north
T
Õ _ km/h due east
Our target variables are the magnitude and direction
T
of Õ
Execute:
Using Eqn. 3.36, we have
T T T
Õv Õv Õ
| |

.#$%&'
Execute:
The three relative velocities and
their relationship are shown in
the figure; the unknowns are
the speed v and the angle Aà
From this diagram we find
T
Õv X km/h X_ km/h
km/h
_ km/h
A of ë
km/h
| |

.#$%&'
Evaluate:
The crosswind increases the speed of the airplane
rel-ative to the earth, but at the price of pushing the
airplane off course.
| |

.5
*+

In Example 3._5, in what direction should the pilot
head to travel due north? What will then be her
velocity relative to the earth? (Assume that her
airspeed and the velocity of the wind are the same
as in Example 3._5.)
| |

.5#$%&'
Identify:
Figure illustrates the situation.
The vectors are arranged in
accordance with the vector
relative-velocity equation,
Eqn. (3.36):
As theT figure Tshows,T the pilot points

Õvofthe
the nose Õv Õat an angle
airplane
A into the wind to compensate for
the crosswind. This angle, which
tells us the direction of the vector
ã ü(the velocity of the airplane
relative to the air), is one of our
target variables. The other target
variable is the speed of the airplane
over the ground, which is the
| |

.5#$%&'
Identify:
This angle, which tells us the direction of the vector
T
Õv (the velocity of the airplane relative to the air),
is one of our target variables. The other target
variable is the speed of the airplane over the ground,
T
which is the magnitude of the vector Õv (the
velocity of the airplane relative to the earth).
Here are the known and unknown quantities:
T
Õv 2 p p
T
Õv km/h p
T
Õ _ km/h p
| |

.5#$%&'
Identify:
We can solve for the unknown target variables using
the figure and trigonometry.
Execute:
From the figure, the speed v and the angle A are
given by
T
Õv X km/h X_ km/h _ 2
_ 2
A
km/h
The pilot should point the airplane 25' west of north,
and her ground speed is then 2_8 km/h.
| |

.5#$%&'
Evaluate:
Note that there were two target variables: the
magnitude of a vector and the direction of a vector, in
both this example and Example 3._5. The difference
is that in Example 3._5, the magnitude and direction
T
referred to the vector XÕv , whereas in this
T
example they referred to different vectors ( Õ R
T
Õv). It's no surprise that a headwind will reduce an
airplane's speed relative to the ground. What this
example shows is that a ualso slows an
airplane down-an unfortunate fact of aeronautical life.
| |

$!
T
The position vector of a pt in space is the
vector from the origin to . Its components are the
coordinates , and .
T
The average velocity vector Õ during the time
T
interval Ä÷ is the displacement divided by Ä÷.
T
The instantaneous velocity vector Õ is the time
T
derivative of and its components are the time
derivatives of , , and .
The instantaneous speed is the magnitude of Õ T
T
The velocity Õ of a particle is always tangent to the
particle¶s path.
| |

$!
T
The average acceleration vector R during the
T
time interval Ä÷ equals ÄÕ divided by Ä÷.
T
The instantaneous acceleration vector R is the
T
time derivative of Õ and its components are the
time derivatives of 4, 4 , and 4.
Acceleration can also be represented in terms of
its components parallel and perpendicular to the
direction of the instantaneous velocity.
T
The parallel component of R affects the speed,
T
while the perpendicular component of R affects
the direction of motion.
| |

$!
In projectile motion with no air resistance, · 0
and · þ.
The coordinates and velocity components are
simple functions of time, and the shape of the
path is always a parabola.
We conventionally choose the origin to be at the
initial position of the projectile.
When a particle moves in a circular path of radius
T
4 with constant speed 4, its acceleration R is
directed toward the centre of the circle and
T
perpendicular to Õ
| |

$!
The magnitude p of the acceleration can be
expressed in terms of 4 and 4 or in terms of 4 and
the period , where 4 ·( 4
If the speed is not constant in circular motion,
T
there is still a radial component of R given by
Eqns 3.28 and 3.30, but there is also a
T
component of R parallel to the path.
This parallel component is equal to the rate of
change of speed, p4p÷.
| |

$!
When a body moves relative to a body (or
reference frame) , and moves relative to , we
T
denote the velocity of relative to by Õ the
T
velocity of relative to by Õ and the velocity
T
of relative to by Õ V
If these velocities are all along the same line,
their components along that line are related by
Eqn 3.33.
More generally, these velocities are related by
Eqn 3.36.
| |

6!7

T
O h X_
T T T
U _ !
Õ X
÷ ÷_ ÷
T T
U p
Õ 2 X
÷ ÷ p÷
T p T p T p
Õ ß Õ¢ ß Õ X
p÷ p÷ p÷
T T T
T Õ Õ_ ! Õ
R X
÷ ÷_ ÷
| |

6!7

T T
T ! Õ pÕ
R 2 X
÷ ÷ p÷
p p p
X_
p÷ p÷ p÷
X´ ÷ X
_
X´ ÷ þ÷ X_

´ ´ X
´ ´ þ÷ X
| |

6!7

´
X

'
rR X

X
T T T
Õ Õ Õ X

Projectile, Uniform Circular Motion, Relative Velocity

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Projectile, Uniform Circular Motion, Relative Velocity

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| | 

 A projectile is any body that is given an initial

 Projectile motion is always confined to a vertical

 So projectile motion is a combination of horizontal

 For -motion, we substitute for , 4 for 4, 4 for

 At any time, the distance  of the projectile from the

Problem-solving strategy (Projectile Motion)

Problem-solving strategy (Projectile Motion)

Problem-solving strategy (Projectile Motion)

Problem-solving strategy (Projectile Motion)

Problem-solving strategy (Projectile Motion)

Problem-solving strategy (Projectile Motion)

Problem-solving strategy (Projectile Motion)

The negative value of shows that at this time the

The motorcycle has the same horizontal velocity  as

X m/s  X m/s  _ m/s

From Eqn. 3.26, the angle r of the velocity vector is

(c) We'll find the horizontal range in two steps. First,

 Magnitude of average acceleration during Ä÷ is

 The velocity of relative

 In general, if and  are any two points or frames

Problem-solving strategy (Relative Velocity)

Problem-solving strategy (Relative Velocity)

Problem-solving strategy (Relative Velocity)

Problem-solving strategy (Relative Velocity)

Problem-solving strategy (Relative Velocity)

As theT figure Tshows,T the pilot points

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| |

A projectile is any body that is given an initial

Projectile motion is always confined to a vertical

So projectile motion is a combination of horizontal

For -motion, we substitute for , 4 for 4, 4 for

At any time, the distance of the projectile from the

The motorcycle has the same horizontal velocity as

X m/s X m/s _ m/s

Magnitude of average acceleration during Ä÷ is

The velocity of relative

In general, if and are any two points or frames