SAMPLING

Chapter 9
Objectives
Define sampling, sample, population, element, sampling unit, ad
subject
Describe and discuss the sampling process
Describe and discuss the different sampling designs
Identify the use of appropriate sampling designs for different
purposes.
Explain why sample data are used to test hypotheses
Discuss precision and confidence
Estimate sample size
Discuss the factors to be taken into consideration for determining
sample size.
Discuss efficiency in sampling
Discuss generalizability in the context of sampling design
Apply the material learned in this chapter to class assignments and
projects
Population, element, sample, sampling
unit, subject and parameters
Population refers to entire group of people, events or
things of interest that the researcher wishes to
investigate
Element - is a single member of the population
Sample is a sub-set of the population
Sampling unit is the element or set of elements that
is available for selection in some stage of the sampling
process
Subject is a single member of the sample, just as an
element is a single member of the population
Parameters the characteristics of the population such
as the population mean, the population std. deviation,
and the population variance.
Normality of Distributions

LOW HIGH
The sampling process
1. Defining the population define the target population
in terms of elements, geographical boundaries, and
time.

2. Determining the sample frame sampling frame is a

(physical) representation of all the elements in the
population from which the sample is drawn.

3. Determining the sampling design probability and non

probability sampling designs
The sampling process
4. Determining the sample size
the research objective
- the extent of precision desired (the confidence
interval)
- the acceptable risk in predicting that level of precision
(confidence level)
- the amount of variability in the population itself.
- the cost and time constraints
- in some cases, the size of the population itself
The sampling process
5. Executing the sampling process
Two major types of sampling designs:
Probability sampling (sample picked at
random)
Non-probability sampling (sample not
randomly picked)
Probability and Non-probability Sampling
Probability sampling
The elements in the population have some known
chance or probability of being selected as sample
subjects
Probability sampling designs are used when the
representativeness of the sample is of importance in the
interests of wider generalisability
Non probability sampling
The elements do not have a known or predetermined
chance of being selected as subjects
When time or other factors, rather than generalisability,
become critical, non probability sampling designs are
chosen
Probability Sampling
Unrestricted sampling
More commonly known as simple random sampling
Every element in the population has a known and equal
chance of being selected as a subject.
simple random sample which can be obtained through four
steps: (a) assign a number to each subject in population; (b)
determine sample size; (c) select subjects numbers from
table of random numbers or generated by computer; and (d)
select the subjects
Advantage
This kind of sampling method has the least bias
Disadvantage
Cumbersome and expensive
An entirely updated listing (population frame) of the population may
not always be available
Sample : Random Sampling
Probability Sampling
Restricted (complex) random sampling
Offer a viable, and sometimes more efficient alternative
to the unrestricted design
Five most common complex probability sampling
methods
Systematic sampling
Stratified random sampling
Cluster sampling
Area sampling
Double sampling
Probability Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Drawing every nth element in the population starting with a
randomly chosen between 1 and n
For example, if we want a sample of 60 household from a
total population of 300 houses, we could sample every 9th
house (9, 18, 27, ) until 60 household are selected.
can be obtained through five steps: (a) break population into
subpopulations if necessary; (b) assign a number to each
subject; (c) determine total sample size and sample size; (d)
select subjects numbers from table of random numbers or
generated by computer; and (e) select the subjects

Sampling interval = Population size / desired sample size

Sampling ratio = Sample size / Population size
Systematic Sampling eg.
 Stratified Random Sampling
Stratified random sampling
When sub-populations vary considerably, it is advantageous to
sample each subpopulation (stratum) independently
Stratification is the process of grouping members of the population
into relatively homogeneous subgroups before sampling
The strata should be mutually exclusive : every element in the
population.
The strata/subpopulations are determined based on the variables
that we want to investigate, for examples, gender, age, location etc.
(5) five steps: (a) break population into subpopulations; (b) assign a
number to each subject in each subpopulation; (c) determine total
sample size and subsample size for each subpopulation; (d) select
subjects numbers from table of random numbers or generated by
computer for each subpopulation; and (e) select the subjects
randomly from each subpopulationn must be assigned to only one
stratum
Sample : Stratified Sampling
Probability sampling proportionate and
disproportionate random sampling

No of subjects in the sample

Job level Number of Proportionate Non-
elements sampling (20%) proportionate
Top management 10 2 7
Middle level management 30 6 15
Lower level management 50 10 20
Supervisors 100 20 30
Clerks 500 100 60
Secretaries 20 4 10
Total 710 142 142

Table 10.1, page 273 fr

textbook
Probability sampling
Cluster random sampling- refers to selection of
groups, or clusters of subjects rather than individuals

CL 1
CL 5
CL 4
CL 2 CL 4
CL 6
CL 9
CL 3 CL 7
CL 8 CL 10
CL 9 CL 11

CL 10
Probability Sampling
Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling is used when "natural" groupings are
evident in the population
The total population is divided into groups or clusters
Elements within a cluster should be as heterogeneous
as possible
But there should be homogeneity between clusters
Each cluster should be a small scale version of the total
population
(3) three steps: (a) break population into
subpopulations; (b) randomly select the number of
subpopulations required; and (c) take all subjects in the
selected subpopulations as sample
Sample : Cluster Sampling
Probability sampling
Single stage and multi stage cluster sampling
combination of cluster random sampling with individual
random sampling

CL 1
CL 5 Randomly
select 5
CL 2 CL 4 persons from
CL 6 Sample of each clusters
CL 3 CL 7 clusters
CL 8
CL 9 CL 11 CL 4 Sample of
individuals
CL 10 CL 9
CL 10
Probability Sampling
Area sampling
One version of cluster sampling is area sampling or
geographical cluster sampling
Clusters consist of geographical areas
A geographically dispersed population can be
expensive to survey
Greater economy than simple random sampling can be
achieved by treating several respondents within a local
area as a cluster
Probability sampling
Double sampling initially a sample is
used in a study to collect some
preliminary information of interest, and
later a subsample of this primary sample
is used to examine the matter in more
detail
Non-Probability Sampling
The elements in the population do not have any
probabilities attached to their being chosen as
sample subjects
The findings from the study of the sample cannot
be confidently generalised to the population
This method is chosen when generalisability is
not critical; focus may be on obtaining preliminary
information in a quick and inexpensive way
 Non Probability sampling-Two broad
categories
Convenience Sampling refers to the collection of
information from members of the population who are
conveniently available to provide it.

Purposive Sampling - refers to a sample purposely identify

from specific target groups because they are able to provide
the information which is needed, eg, their expertise in
specific area - either because they are the only ones who
have it, or conform to some criteria set by the researcher
Judgment sampling involves the choice of subjects who are most
advantageously placed or in the best position to provide the information
required
Quota sampling ensures that certain groups are adequately represented
in the study through the assignment of a quota.
Purposive Sampling eg
Non-Probability Sampling
Purposive sampling (two types)
Judgment sampling
Involves choice of subjects who are most
advantageously placed or in the best position
to provide the information required
Judgment sampling may curtail the
generalisability of the findings because we are
using a sample of experts who are
conveniently available to us
Judgment sampling calls for special efforts to
locate and gain access to the individuals who
do not have the requisite information
 Non-Probability Sampling
Purposive sampling (two types)
Quota sampling
This method ensures that certain groups are adequately
represented in the study through the assignment of a quota
The quota fixed for each subgroup is based on the
total numbers of each group in the population
Considered as a form of proportionate stratified sampling,
in which a predetermined proportion of people are sampled
from different groups, but on a convenience basis
(5) five steps: (a) determine variables relevant to research
questions; (b) determine subpopulations based on these
variables; (c) determine the size of each subpopulation; (c)
determine sample size and subsample sizes; and (e) select
typical cases from the subpopulations. In the last step, the
judgment for typical cases is very important so that
research findings can be interpreted easily.
Quota Sampling eg
Determining Sample Size
What is the sample size that would be required to
make reasonably precise generalisations with
confidence
A reliable and valid sample should enable us to
generalise the findings from the sample to the
population under investigation
The sample statistics should be reliable estimates
and reflect the population parameters as closely
as possible within a narrow margin of error
Determining Sample Size
Precision
Precision refers to how close our estimate is to the true
population characteristic
We would estimate the population parameter to fall within a
range, based on the sample estimate
Precision is a function of the range of variability in the
sampling distribution of the sample mean
If we want to reduce the standard error given a particular
standard deviation in the sample, we need to increase the
sample size
The smaller the variation in the population, the smaller the
standard error (and thus the sample size does not need to be
large)
Normally, the greater the precision required, the larger is the
sample size needed
Issues of precision and confidence in
determining sample size
Precision refers to how close our estimate is
to the true population characteristics.

The standard error is calculated

= /
Note: >> the sample, n, less error and more
reflective of the population characteristics
Determining Sample Size
Confidence
Confidence denotes how certain we are that our
estimates will really hold true for the population
Confidence reflects the level of certainty with which we
can state that our estimates of the population
parameters, based on our sample statistics, will hold
true
Level of confidence can range from 0 to 100%
A level of confidence of 95% is conventionally
acceptable in business research
Determining Sample Size
Sample size is a function of
Variability in the population
The more variance we find, the bigger the sample should be
Precision or accuracy needed
The more precise or accurate we want, the bigger the sample
size should be
Confidence level desired
The higher the confidence level we want, the bigger the sample
size should be
Type of sampling plan used
Different sampling approaches will require different sample size
Determining Sample Size
Trade-off between confidence and precision
If there is little variability in the population, a
small sample size will be sufficient to obtain a
high confidence and precision level
The higher the precision, the lower will our
confidence level be
The higher the confidence level, the lower will
our precision level be
Issues of precision and confidence in
determining sample size

Guidelines in determining the sample size,

minimum number of subjects needed (Fraenkle
& Wallen, 1996)
- descriptive study, minimum sample -100
- correlational study, minimum sample 50
- experimental and causal comparison 30
Issues of precision and confidence in
determining sample size
Roscoe (1975) proposes the following rule of
thumbs for determining sample size:
i. Sample sizes larger than 30 and less than 500
are appropriate for most research
ii. Where samples are to be broken into
subsamples, a minimum sample size of 30 for
each category is necessary
iii. In multivariate research, the sample size should
be several times as large as the number of
variables in the study
iv. For simple experimental research (eg matched
pairs) with tight experimental controls successful
research is possible with samples as small as 10
20 in size
Page 296- 297, textbook
Sampling as related to qualitative
studies
Generally use non probability sampling, usually
purposive sampling

Example is theoretical sampling which is from

grounded theory (Glasser & Strauss, 1967)i.e.
that theory will emerge from data through iterative
process that involves repeated sampling, collection
of data until theoretical saturation is reached

Theoretical sampling refers to sampling of

additional subjects as directed by the emerging
theoretical framework
Discussion adapted from Fraenkle &
Wallen (1996)
Listed below are 3 examples of sampling. Determine which is
which
i. Ten numbers of 10 cents coins are randomly selected
from a large jar in which there is a total of RM 4.00 of 10
cents coins.

ii. A random sample of 10 airports is surveyed by sending

trained interviewers to solicit reactions about air safety
from passengers disembarking from arriving airplanes.

iii. A community is found in which the total population

consists of individuals with the following religious
affiliations: Muslim (50%), Buddha (25%), Hindu (15%)
and others (10%). A researcher selects a random sample
of 100 individuals, made up of 50 Muslim, Buddha 25,
Hindu 15 and others 10.
Discussion adapted from Fraenkle &
Wallen (1996)
iv. A team of researchers wants to determine the
attitudes of students about the recreational
services available in the student union on
campus. The team stops the first 100 students
it meets on a street in the middle of the
campus and asks questions about the union of
each of these students.

v. What are some possible ways that this sample

might be biased?
Discussion adapted from Fraenkle &
Wallen (1996)
v. A company running a chain of restaurants in
Noida wants to start a new one in Sector 18.
Prior to that , it wants to conduct a survey of
the employees of various institutions in that
area to know about their eating habits, food
preferences, etc. Suggest a suitable sampling
scheme for the same.
Discussion adapted from Fraenkle &
Wallen (1996)
vi. Answer whether the following statements are
true or false:
a. In order to gather opinions about a television
show I asked the views of my friends. My
friends then asked about the show to their
friends and in this manner a sample was
selected. This sampling procedure was
based on judgment sampling. ( True /False)
Discussion adapted from Fraenkle &
Wallen (1996)

b. A cluster sample provides more reliable data

because of complete enumeration within a
cluster. (True /False)

c. A systematic sample can be used even if a

formal list of all the units of the population is
not available. (True /False)
Discussion adapted from Fraenkle &
Wallen (1996)

d. The main difficulty with multi-stage sampling

is that a long frame has to be prepared.
(True /False)

e. In stratified sampling with optimum

allocation, if the cost of sampling is equal in
each stratum, then the strata with larger size
will always have a large allocation of sample
size. (True /False)
Revision

1. Observation recorded in natural setting or

environment is known as:
A. Unstructured Observation
B. Uncontrolled Observation
C. Controlled Observation
D. Structured Observation
Revision
2. Which of the following is not disadvantage for
the questionnaire method of data collection?
A. Unwillingness of respondents to provide
information
B. Biases of respondents
C. Questioning is usually faster and cheaper
than observation
D. Inability of respondents to provide
information
Revision
3. Which of the following is a comprehensive
study of a social unit be that unit a person, a
group, a social institution, a district or a
community
A. Questionnaire
B. Case Study
C. Schedule
D. Observation