Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Sc
1. Source Rock
0
2. Reservoir Rock
1000
3. Timing / Burial 1 0. 2 m
2000 Y
History
3000
4. Maturation
4000
5. Migration
5000 HIGH
6. Cap Rock PRESSURE
6000
7. Trap
7000
10 km
8000
9000
10000
DK - 2 -
Reservoir Components
DK - 3 -
Geology Structural Products
Fold
Fault
Fracture
DK - 4 -
Structural Reservoir Trap
Anticlinal Axis
l A x is
c lin a
Syn
DK - 5 -
Structural Reservoir Trap
Normal Faults
DK - 6 -
Structural Reservoir Trap
DK - 7 -
Structural Reservoir Trap
DK - 8 -
Structural Reservoir Trap - Anticline
DK - 9 -
Structural Reservoir Trap - Fault
Fault Leaked
Fault Sealed
DK - 10 -
Stratigraphyc Trap
DK - 11 -
Standard Scientific Units
DK - 12 -
Common Conversion Factors
1 cp = 0.001 Pa s 1 md = 10 -15 m2
DK - 13 -
Properties of the Reservoir Rocks
Properties of the rock material:
- Porosity
- Pore size distribution
- Permeability
- Formation compressibility
Static rock-fluid properties (related to interaction of rock &
fluids contained in pores):
- Wettability & contact angle
- Capillary pressure & interfacial tension
- Irreducible & connate water saturation
- Residual oil saturation
Dynamic rock-fluid properties (related to the interaction of rock
& fluids):
- Relative permeability
- Mobility
- Saturation distribution during immiscible fluid displacement
DK - 14 -
Properties of the Rock Material
Porosity
DK - 15 -
Properties of the Rock Material
Porosity
Void Volume
Porosity
Bulk Volume
DK - 16 -
Factor Affecting Porosity
Porosity is affected by
- Sorting (well sorted means grains are all of
roughly uniform size)
- Roundness or angularity
- Compaction
- Contribution of secondary porosity i.e., vugs or
fractures
- Type of packing and cementation.
DK - 17 -
Properties of the Rock Material
Porosity
Limestone &
dolomite reservoirs
average = 10%
DK - 18 -
Porosity Oil Quartz Grain
= 0.08 mm
DK - 19 -
Notes on Porosity
DK - 20 -
Properties of the Rock Material
Pore Size Distribution
distribution of
pore volumes
by
characteristic
pore size
Use pore size
distributions
with caution
DK - 21 -
Properties of the Rock Material
Permeability - Darcys Equation
Q Where:
q = volumetric rate (cm3/sec)
k A p 1 p 2
k = permeability (darcies)
q A = area (cm2)
L A p2
m = viscosity (cp)
L
p p1 = upstream pressure (atm)
p1
Q p2 = downstream pressure (atm)
DK - 22 -
Properties of the Rock Material
Permeability - Darcys Equation
A sand of one Darcy permeability will permit a fluid
of one centipoise viscosity to flow through an area
of one cm2 at a flow rate of one cubic centimeter
per second under a pressure gradient of one
atmosphere per centimeter
- Usually a Darcy is much too large a unit for
reservoir rocks normally encountered in the field,
so a millidarcy, or one-thousandth of a Darcy, is
the customary unit
1000 md = 1 D
DK - 23 -
Properties of the Rock Material
Permeability - Darcys Equation
In oilfield units, Darcys equation for the horizontal flow
of a liquid can be expressed as:
1.1271x103 k A p1 p2
q
L
Where:
q = volumetric flow rate of liquid (bbl/day)
k = permeability (md)
A = flow area (ft2)
p1 = upstream pressure (psi)
p2 = downstream pressure (psi)
= fluid viscosity (cp)
L = thickness of porous media (ft)
DK - 24 -
Properties of the Rock Material
Absolute and Effective Permeability
Permeability
- Property of the rock & not of the fluid which flows
through it, provided that the fluid 100% saturates the
pore space of the rock
Absolute permeability
- Permeability at 100% saturation of a single fluid is
called the of the rock
Effective permeability
- Permeability of a rock to a particular fluid when that
fluid has a pore saturation less than 100%.
The sum of the effective permeabilities for different
fluids is always < absolute permeability of the rock
DK - 25 -
Properties of the Rock Material
Permeability - Darcys Equation
Example of the Klinkenberg Effect for Gas Flow Through a Porous Media
DK - 26 -
Factor Affecting Permeability
Porosity
Saturation
Fluid flow velocity, Viscosity and
Pressure
Flow Geometry
DK - 27 -
Flow Geometry for Parallel Layer
j 1
k j hj
k n
j 1
hj
DK - 28 -
Flow Geometry for Seri Layer
L
k n Lj
K
j 1 j
DK - 29 -
Note for Permeability
DK - 30 -
Static Rock-Fluid Properties
Wettability
Wettability - tendency of one fluid to spread on, or adhere
to a solid surface in presence of other immiscible fluids
DK - 31 -
Static Rock-Fluid Properties
Wettability
Of known reservoirs, approximately:
- 25% water-wet
- 25% oil-wet
- 50% intermediate or mixed wettability
Water
Oil
DK - 35 -
Static Rock-Fluid Properties
Capillary Pressure
DK - 36 -
Static Rock-Fluid Properties
Capillary Pressure
Example of a typical capillary pressure curve and the corresponding Primary use of
vertical fluid distribution in the reservoir
capillary pressure
curve is to develop
the distribution of
water in a reservoir
It shows the interval
within which the
saturation gradually
changes from 100%
to connate water
saturation of < 20%
DK - 37 -
Static Rock-Fluid Properties
Capillary Pressure
Less permeable layers can have larger transition zones & higher connate
water saturations
Failure to account for capillary pressures can result in significantly
optimistic OOIP estimates
Capillary pressure curves represent properties of a single discrete sample,
& caution is required when scaling up to the reservoir
To assure saturation distributions derived from measured capillary pressure
data are characteristic, saturations should be calibrated with logs
5000 Sw = Swir
Depth
Top of OW
Transition Zone
OWC
5800
0 100%
DK - 38 -
Static Rock-Fluid Properties
Irreducible & Connate Water Saturation
Irreducible water saturation, Swir
- Minimum saturation (where capillary pressure curve
becomes almost vertical)
- Maximum saturation sustainable without having water
flow
Connate water saturation, Swc
- That saturation existing in reservoir at discovery - it can
be greater than or equal to Swir
- If Swc > Swir then it is a mobile phase
- In most reservoir engineer calculations, irreducible &
connate water saturations are assumed identical
Affected by wettability of rock - tend to be lower in
oil-wet rocks than in water-wet rocks
DK - 39 -
Dynamic Rock-Fluid Properties
Relative Permeability
keff
kr
kabs
DK - 40 -
Dynamic Rock-Fluid Properties
Relative Permeability
k o A dpo dz ko
qo = - - o g kro =
o ds ds k
kg A dpg dz kg
qg = - ds - g g ds krg =
g k
k A dp dz kw
qw = - w w - w g krw =
w ds ds k
DK - 41 -
Dynamic Rock-Fluid Properties
Wettability Effect on Relative Permeability
Typical water-oil relative permeability
characteristics for water-wet & oil-wet reservoirs:
1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
Oil
0.4 0.4
Water Oil
0.2 0.2
Water
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Water Sat., % PV Water Sat., % PV
DK - 42 -
Dynamic Rock-Fluid Properties
Wettability Effect on Relative Permeability
DK - 43 -
Dynamic Rock-Fluid Properties
Mobility
In Darcys equation, there is a proportionality factor relating
the velocity of a fluid to the pressure gradient
This proportionality factor, termed the mobility of the fluid, is
the ratio of its relative permeability at a given saturation to its
viscosity
Thus the water mobility is:
kw
w
DK - 45 -
Dynamic Rock-Fluid Properties
Saturation Distribution During
Immiscible Fluid Displacement
Schematic of Saturation Profile (After Slider)
DK - 47 -
Dynamic Rock-Fluid Properties
Saturation Distribution During
Immiscible Fluid Displacement
The shape of the initial saturation curve reflects the effect of
a transition zone from 100% water to connate water
saturation
Fluid Displacement Characteristics (After Slider)
Recovery Efficiency ER = ED x EA x EI
Where:
ED = Unit Displacement Efficiency, fraction
EA = Areal Sweep Efficiency, fraction
EI = Vertical (Invasion) Sweep Efficiency, fraction
- Capillary pressure ED
- Gravity difference EA
- Dip angle
- Injection rate EI
- Fractures or vugs
- Oil saturations at start & end of a flood
- Oil formation volume factors at start & end of a
flood
DK - 52 -
Areal Sweep Efficiency
EA = Areal Sweep Efficiency
- Fraction of the reservoir area the water will
contact
- Sometimes called horizontal sweep efficiency
- Depends on relative flow properties of oil & water
and on waterflood pattern
Using a waterflood example:
Surface Area Covered by Injection Water Front
EA
Surface Area Covered by the Reservoir (Pattern)
DK - 53 -
Areal Sweep Efficiency
Factors which affect areal sweep efficiency:
- Flood pattern & well spacing
- Mobility ratio
- Heterogeneity
- Directional permeability
- Barriers
Unswept
- Fractures
- Formation dip Swept
- Gravity segregation
- Injection rate
- Sgi distribution
DK - 54 -
Vertical Sweep Efficiency
DK - 56 -
Factors Which Affect Sweep Efficiency
Mobility Ratio
Mobility ratio, M is defined in terms of effective or relative
permeability & the viscosity of injection water & oil as:
k rw
w krwo Displacing
M
k ro krow Displaced
Where: kro = ooil relative permeability
krw = water relative permeability
o = oil viscosity
w = water viscosity
Water relative permeability is based on a point in the
reservoir where injection water has contacted the
reservoir
The oil relative permeability point is in the oil bank
DK - 57 -
Factors Which Affect Sweep Efficiency
Mobility Ratio
Mobility ratio is generally termed favorable or
unfavorable depending on whether its value
is < or > 1.0
- When M = 1.0, oil & water mobilities are equal &
have the same resistance to flow in the reservoir
- When M < 1.0, oil flows more easily than water, &
injection water does a more effective job of
displacing oil
- Conversely, when M > 1.0, water flows better than
oil & is less effective in displacing oil
It is my experience that a floods mobility ratio is the most
important single characteristic of that flood. F. F. Craig
DK - 58 -
Factors Which Affect Sweep Efficiency
Mobility Ratio - Oil Viscosity
Note that oil viscosity
becomes much larger as
pressure is lowered
below 243 psia bubble
point pressure
This is caused by gas
being released from the
oil - gas has a low
viscosity
The remaining oil has
heavy chemical
components & becomes
more viscous as gas is
released Penwell Field Oil Viscosity PVT
DK - 59 -
Factors Which Affect Sweep Efficiency
Mobility Ratio - Water Viscosity
As reservoir
temperature
increases,
viscosity of
water
decreases
Water
viscosity
increases as
water salinity
increases
DK - 62 -
Factors Which Affect Sweep Efficiency
Reservoir Heterogeneities
Methods used to detect & quantify areal reservoir
variations:
- Mapping of core data, log data, & well test data
- Detailed lithological studies
- Pressure transient testing:
Pulse tests
Interference tests to detect & quantify directional
permeability trends
Fault or barrier detection
- Environment of deposition:
Recognition of depositional environment allows one to
infer probable directional changes in grain size, grain
orientation, permeability etc.
DK - 63 -
Factors Which Affect Sweep Efficiency
Reservoir Heterogeneities
Methods used to detect & quantify areal reservoir
variations (contd):
- Injection & production well behavior
- Performance history matching using mathematical
simulators
- Fracture detection:
Aerial photo interpretation
Pressure transient analysis
Tectonics analysis
Inflatable impression packers
Step-rate tests
Core studies
Downhole imaging tools
DK - 64 -