Climate & Natural Vegetation

Things to note about the chapter

Reading Climograph
Describing temperature and rainfall patterns
Climate
Types of climate
Tropical Equatorial
Arid / Desert
Climate characteristics
Reasons for high/low temperature and rainfall
Natural Vegetation
Types of vegetation
Tropical Equatorial Rainforest
Desert vegetation
Characteristics of Vegetation
Adaptations of Vegetation to Climate
Climate & Natural Vegetation

Tropical Equatorial Climate

& Vegetation
 Tropical
Equatorial
Tropical Dry and
Wet
Tropical
Monsoon
 Summary of the Different Types of Tropical
Climates
Equatorial Dry and Wet Monsoon

Temperature hot average monthly mean

temperature all year temperatures
round above 18C in
every month of
Small temperature range the year

less variance in
temperatures
during the course
of the year
Rainfall high monthly lower than greater than
precipitation 1000mm annual 1000mm of
rainfall rainfall in the year
typically no less than
60mm a month less than 60mm in
any single month
annual precipitation
tending to be over Distinct dry and
2000mm wet seasons
Tropical Equatorial Climate
 Tropical Equatorial Climate

Hot average temperature all year round

Due to tilt of the earth on its own axis
Causes the equatorial latitudes to face the sun and
receive more or less the same amount of radiation all
year round
The annual range of temperature is small of about
3C
The day temperature seldom exceeds 33C
The night temperature seldom drops below 22C
because of the extensive cloud cover
Diurnal temperature range is greater than the annual
temperature range
Daily range of temperature is about 10C
 Tropical Equatorial Climate
High monthly precipitation
no less than 60 mm a month
No distinct dry season as rain falls every month
Annual rainfall is high, tending to be over 2000mm
Due to high temperatures and high rate of evaporation
Warm unstable air rises in convection currents to great
heights to form cumulonimbus clouds
Convectional rain, which falls in the afternoon, is often
accompanied by lightning and thunder
Day relative humidity is 80% or more and a slight fall
in night temperatures causes the water vapour to
condense as dew near ground level
Relationship between location and type
of natural vegetation

Location of a specific area determines the type

of natural vegetation
 Location of a specific area determines
the type of natural vegetation

Different areas on earth experiences different

types of climates

Differences in temperatures and rainfalls

influences the type of natural vegetation that
can grow in a specific area
Tropical Rainforests
Tropical Rainforests
Dense luxurious vegetation
Hot and wet climate encourages rapid
plant growth

Evergreen
High temperatures and rainfall
throughout the year

3 layers of the tropical rainforest

Emergents
Canopy
Understorey
 Emergent
Made up of the tallest trees

Grow up to 40m to 50m tall to reach out

for sunlight
 Canopy
Consists of trees that
are 20m-30m
The trees crowns form
a continuous canopy
that prevents most of
the sunlight from
reaching the forest
floor
There are non-parasitic
plants like lianas and
epiphytes
Also have parasitic
 Understorey
Smaller trees
that have
narrower
crown

Shrubs

Small plants
Given the high temperatures and rainfall
in the area, what kind of adaptations are
made by the plants in TRF in order to
continuously survive?
 Adaptations (Tropical Rainforests)
Abundance of sunlight and rain
Supports a huge number of tree species in an equatorial
rainforest

High temperature and rainfall

Ensure plant growth is continuous all year round

Evergreen
Hence do not shed all their leaves over the same period
of time
 Adaptations (Tropical Rainforests)
Leaves
Broad
and dark
green
Generall
y thick
and
leathery
to
withstan
d the
heat
 Adaptations (Tropical Rainforests)
Smooth and
waxy so
rainwater can
run off them
easily

Have
downward-
pointing drip
tips to allow
excess water
to drip off
 Adaptations (Tropical Rainforests)
Bark and branches
Smooth and thin as
there is no necessity to
protect against cold or
dry weather

Branches and leaves are

found at the top one-
third of trees;
maximum light can be
obtained
 Adaptations (Tropical Rainforests)
Roots
Shallow as high
rainfall provides
much moisture in the
top layer

Larger trees have

buttress roots to
support the heavy
weight of tall trees;
these roots can be one
to five metres above
the ground
Adaptations (Tropical Rainforests)
High Temperatures
Nutrients are also found in
the top layer of soil, due to
the rapid decay of fallen
leaves, twigs and branches

High temperatures speed

up the breakdown of dead
plants and animals;
decomposition takes place
rapidly and allows further
plant growth
 Adaptations (Tropical Rainforests)
Thick Canopy
Cuts off light from the lower layers very
effectively; other plant species below the
canopy struggle to reach for sunlight

Emergents grow to heights that stretch

beyond canopy layer

Lianas twine around tall trees to reach

for sunlight
 Adaptations (Tropical Rainforests)
Flowers and fruits
Vegetation depend on not only wind but
also animals for pollination

This is because air is generally still in the

dense forest; harder to depend on wind to
pollinate

Many flowers are colourful and fruits are

sweet-smelling to attract the birds and
insects to eat and help the vegetation to
pollinate
Uses of Tropical Rainforest

Timber Mineral
s

Water
Power
 Uses of the Rainforest
Timber
There is a growing demand for tropical
hardwoods from the developed industrial
countries

Tropical rainforest is rich in hardwoods

like meranti and mahogany which are
commercially valuable in furniture-
making and construction industries.

Countries with the Amazon forest can

earn much money from felling the trees
and selling the logs
 Uses of the Rainforest
Minerals
The Amazon Basin are rich in
deposits of iron, bauxite, copper,
nickel and gold

Some 900 000km of forest have

been removed for the mining of
high-grade iron ore in Brazil

Over 10 000km of forest have to

make way for oil mining and the
 Uses of the Rainforest
Water Power
Dams have been built and some still
under construction

Done to increase the output of

hydroelectric power

Large areas of the forest are flooded

to create the reservoirs behind the
dams
Human Modification of Tropical
Rainforests

Case Study
Borneo Rainforest
Amazon Rainforest in
Brazil
 The Disappearing Forests
Largely due to the increasing demand
for land for different uses
Mining companies
Multinational companies
Private logging companies
New settlers
Cattle ranchers
Government
 Mining Companies

Land which contain copper,

nickel, gold and iron ore

Some 900,000km of forest

removed for the mining of high-
grade ore in Brazil

Over 100,000km of forest clear

to make way for oil mining and
construction of roads and
refineries in Ecuador
 Private logging companies

Timber for furniture-making and

construction

Growing demand for tropical

hardwoods from the developed
industrial countries

Able to earn much money from

felling the trees and selling the logs
large-scale logging
 Multinational Companies

Land for large-scale cash crops

plantations

Growing pepper, sugar cane,

bananas and coffee
 Small-scale farming

The use of unsustainable farming

methods e.g burning of area to
clear land

Land to grow subsistence crops to

feed themselves e.g growing of
maize by shifting cultivators in
Brazil

Land can also be cleared to grow

crops for local population
 Cattle Ranchers
Land for growing grass for
rearing cattle

More than of Amazon rainforest

converted into pastures
for large-scale cattle ranching
operated by multinational
companies
 Cattle Ranchers
Cattle ranching - valuable source of
income
great demand for beef in developed
countries

Brazil large subsidies and tax incentives

given to encourage this activity.
However, the land is not suitable for
pastures and weeds soon take over the
land and cattle ranchers have to move
off and clear more forest
 Government
Land for social and economic development
in the country

Road and highway development to

encourage growth of industries
Trees felled to make way for roads to gain
access to and develop the interior of the
Amazon rainforest
e.g Trans Amazon Highway which is
6000km long
More new settlements are set up along
 Government
Settlement development schemes
for landless farmers and
resettlement of native tribes and
rural population
 Practice Questions
Why is it difficult to prevent the clearance and
exploitation of areas of tropical rainforests? (6)

Why are many people throughout the world

concerned by the loss of tropical rainforests?
(6)

How might areas of tropical rainforests be

conserved to reduce exploitation? (4)
Problems Faced In
Tropical Rainforests
 Problems Faced
Increase in
Increased soil erosion
sedimentati and
on and frequency
flooding of
landslides

Destruction
Loss of soil of habitats
fertility of flora and
fauna
Problems Faced

Damage to
Threatening
atmosphere
lifestyles and
& changes to
existence of
worlds
tribal groups
climate
 Problems arising from deforestation
Increase in soil erosion and frequency and
landslides
Leaves and branches of trees intercept rain
Water droplets will not splash hard on
the ground and dislodge the soil

Roots bind the soil together

Without forest cover, rapid surface runoff

occurs, carrying along loosened soil

Soil erosion will be accelerated and

landslides occur more frequently
 Problems arising from deforestation
Increase in sedimentation and flooding
Eroded soil ends up in the river, thus
silting them up

Increased sedimentation causes the water

to be murky and undrinkable

Harmful to the fisheries found in the

river or at the lower course of the river

This also increases the incidence of

flooding in the plains
 Problems arising from deforestation
Loss of soil fertility
The nutrient cycle
Insects, worms and other small
organisms help break down fallen leaves,
twigs and branches
When decomposed, they form humus,
which keeps the soil fertile

Nutrient cycle is broken when no

decomposition occurs
This is because trees have been removed
 Problems arising from deforestation
Destruction of Flora and Fauna
The Amazon rainforest has
about 20% of all higher plant species,
20% of all bird species,
10% of worlds mammals
Over 400 insect species may be supported
by each type of tree
 Problems arising from deforestation
Rapid deforestation may kill many
animals as trees are felled and burnt.
Causes the extinction of many plant and
animal species in the rainforest,
especially when they cannot adapt to a
new environment

Many rainforest products goes into

making of drugs used to treat many
diseases.
Destruction of the rainforest means
these important ingredients are
 Problems arising from deforestation
Threatening lifestyle to the indigenous and
tribal groups
Tribal groups live in the Amazon
rainforest as hunters, gatherers and
shifting cultivators

Destroying the rainforests threatens their

lifestyle
they may encounter difficulty adapting
to a new lifestyle outside the rainforest
 Problems arising from deforestation
Damage to atmosphere and changes to the
world climate
Fewer trees present reduced the amount
and rate of transpiration
Results in lower and irregular rainfall,
affecting food-producing countries
There will not be enough trees to give out
oxygen and to absorb carbon dioxide
produced by the burning of fossil fuels
Carbon dioxide is also added to the
atmosphere when trees in the forest are
burnt.
 Problems arising from deforestation

The build up of carbon dioxide in the air

will trap heat and increase the greenhouse
effect, and ultimately the pace of global
warming

Global warming could cause

severe droughts in some areas
Polar caps to melt and sea level to rise
Result in flooding and drowning of
low-lying coastal areas and islands.
Measures taken to protect the
rainforest
Practising
conservati Afforestat
on by ion &
maintainin Reforestat
g tribal ion
land
reserves Practise
selective
cutting
Establishme Practising
nt of Laws conservatio
and Policies n by
to maintaining
discourage protected
deforestatio areas
n activities
 Measures taken to protect rainforests
Practising selective cutting
Clear cutting = removal of all trees in an
area
Cause widespread destruction of the
rainforest system

Instead of clear cutting, selective cutting is

enforced.
Cutting only trees that meet the criteria
set
E.g only trees that meet a certain
minimum circumference can be cut
 Measures taken to protect rainforests
Practising selective cutting
Brazilian government requires the logging
companies to carefully select the trees
they are allowed to fell so that the other
trees will be left undisturbed

Advantages
This measure stops the loss of immature
trees to a certain extent
Helps to slow down the rate of
deforestation
 Measures taken to protect rainforests
Practising selective cutting
Disadvantages
Illegal logging still persists due to
Weak law enforcements
Corruption among officials
Inefficient supervision due to
inaccessibility posed by vastness of the
forest

Efficient and effective supervision of law

enforcement and establishment of
policies may be hampered by
 Measures taken to protect rainforests
Practising selective cutting
Disadvantages
Young neighboring trees get destroyed
during the felling process of the
approved trees

Biodiversity is adversely affected if

similar species are consistently selected
and cut
 Measures taken to protect rainforests
Afforestation & Reforestation
Reforestation = forest are planted over
areas that have been logged
Afforestation = planting of trees in areas
which were previously bare or used for
other landuses
E.g Agroforestry = trees are grown and
nurtured on farms
Trees eventually provide wood for
charcoal, shade and food for farmers.
 Measures taken to protect rainforests
Afforestation & Reforestation
Afforestation
Has also been carried out by some
farmers who nurture trees with other
crops on their farms

Advantages
Effective to a certain extent as farmers
can get an income from cash crops
while waiting for trees to mature
 Measures taken to protect rainforests
Afforestation & Reforestation
Afforestation
Disadvantages
Agro-forestry is dependent on choice
of right tree species and their ability to
integrate with crops.
Farmers often face difficulty in
choosing the right tree species
There is a long waiting period for trees
to mature even though harvesting is
less tedious due to accessibility
Success is very much dependent on
 Measures taken to protect rainforests
Afforestation & Reforestation
Reforestation
2005, Brazilian cedar & mahogany were
grown under the patronage of the
Amazon Ecological Research Centre on
10, 000 hectares of deforested land near
Manaus

Advantages
Helps to protect, conserve and sustain
forest to a certain extent
 Measures taken to protect rainforests
Afforestation & Reforestation
Reforestation
Disadvantages
Rate of replanting is slower than the
rate of deforestation
Replanting involves high capital
investments, proper planning and
supervision
Shortage of funds and expertise may
hamper its effectiveness
 Measures taken to protect rainforests
Establishment of Laws and Policies to
discourage deforestation activities
Financial assistance for some land
clearance projects has been withdrawn in
order to discourage the deforestation
activities

International aid agencies are also more

careful to ensure that any loan made to
the Amazonian countries is not going to
be used in ways that can harm the
rainforest and its people.
 Measures taken to protect rainforests
Establishment of Laws and Policies to
discourage deforestation activities
Non-government conservation groups can
buy and then write off a countrys foreign
debts if the country concerned is willing to
invest in rainforest conservation
programmes

1988, Brazilian government stopped

giving tax incentives to cattle ranchers
Because of this, about 30% less rainforest
was cut down from 1988 to 1990
 Measures taken to protect rainforests
Practising conservation by maintaining
protected areas
Governments step in to preserve certain
areas of the rainforest where the trees
there are not to be disturbed.

Setting aside certain areas to serve as

environmental or natures reserves to
ensure protection of plant and animal
species.
 Measures taken to protect rainforests
Practising conservation by maintaining
protected areas
Currently, 4% of the Amazon rainforest is
protected as environmental reserves
Colombia has a Forestry Action Plan
which aims to protect its Andean forest.
Venezuela has ordered that 60% of its
rainforest be protected areas.
Brazilian government plans to set aside
12% of the forest as reserves by 2012
 Measures taken to protect rainforests
Practising conservation by maintaining
protected areas
Disadvantages
Illegal logging still exists due to
inefficient management & monitoring of
reserve
Inefficiency is due to lack of manpower
and inaccessibility caused by vastness of
the forest
Also, maintenance of nature reserves and
deployment of trained forest rangers are
expensive and difficult. Hence allowing
the problem of illegal logging to
 Measures taken to protect rainforests
Practising conservation by maintaining
tribal land reserves
20% of Amazon rainforest has been set
aside for the tribal groups.
In this area, they are allowed to live their
own life undisturbed.
Only tribes are allowed to clear forest to
build homes and farms
However, they are not allowed to sell or
exchange their land with other people
Hence, loggers, cattle ranchers and other
investors are not allowed to touch this
 Measures taken to protect rainforests
Practising conservation by maintaining
tribal land reserves
Advantages
Prevent commercial logging companies
from exploiting rainforest for fast profits
Conservation by Brazilian government is
effective to a certain extent
Helps to protect natural habitat, preserve
original biodiversity of forest and tribal
culture, slow down deforestation rate
since it restricts large scale commercial
logging
 Measures taken to protect rainforests
Practising conservation by maintaining tribal
land reserves
Disadvantages
Tribes are vulnerable to exploitation by
logging companies which can offer
attractive bribes to the tribal groups or
official in order to buy the land
Conservation is considered as a long process
and requires co-operation from tribes, local
community and MNCs
Conservation efforts in Brazil is considered
to still be in initial stages, hence, no
significant effect has been seen in
deforestation rate reduction