Chapter 7:(Mechanical Properties)

Tensile & Hardness Testing;

Macroscopic Behavior;
Elastic Deformation;
Elastic Modulus;
Proportional Limit;
Poisson's Ratio;
Plastic deformation;
Yielding and Yielding Strength;
Tensile Strength;
Fracture Strength;
Ductility;
Resilience;
Toughness
Property Variability;
Design Safety Factors.
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7.2 (Stress and Strain)

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 Common States of Stress

Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
s= s s
Ao
Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft
M Fs Ao
Ac
Fs
t =
Ao
M
2R Note: R t Ac= M here.
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OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (i)
Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F
s=
Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao (s < 0 here).

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OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (ii)
Bi-axial tension: Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
sq > 0

sz > 0 sh< 0

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 Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, s: Shear stress, t:
Ft Ft F

Area, Ao Fs
Area, Ao

Fs
Ft
Fs Ft
Ft lb f N t= F
s= = 2 or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area
before loading
Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf /in2
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 Engineering Strain
Tensile strain: Lateral strain:
d/2
-dL
e = d eL =
Lo Lo wo
wo

dL /2
Shear strain:
q
x g = x/y = tan q

y 90 - q
Strain is always
90 dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 7.1 (a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 3e. 8
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 (Elastic Deformation)
7.3 -(Stress-Strain behavior)

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 Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
d
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 Linear Elastic Properties
Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

Hooke's Law:
s=Ee s F
E

e
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test

12
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

dplastic
delastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
d
dplastic
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 Slope of stress strain plot (which is proportional to the
elastic modulus) depends on bond strength of metal

Adapted from Fig. 7.7,

Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

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 Youngs Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda AFRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B.2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE 19
7.4 (Anelasticity)

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7.5 (Poissions Ratio)

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 Poisson's Ratio, n
eL
Poisson's ratio, n:

eL
n=-
e e

metals: n ~ 0.33 -n
ceramics: n ~ 0.25
polymers: n ~ 0.40

Units: n > 0.50 density increases

E: [GPa] or [psi]
n < 0.50 density decreases
n: Dimensionless (voids form)

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 Other Elastic Properties
t M
Elastic Shear
modulus, G:
G simple
g torsion
t=Gg test

M
Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
V V P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
E E = V
G= K=
2(1 + n) 3(1 - 2n)
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 7.6 ()
Mechanical Properties:
Macroscopic Behavior;
Elastic Deformation;
Elastic Modulus;
Proportional Limit;
Poisson's Ratio;
Plastic deformation;
Yielding and Yielding
Strength;
Tensile Strength;
Fracture Strength;
Ductility;
Resilience;
Toughness.

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 Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, s at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

ep engineering strain, e

plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 7.10 (a),

Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

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 Yielding and Yield Strength, sy
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s
sy = yield strength
sy

Note: for 2 inch sample

e = 0.002 = z/z
z = 0.004 in

engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 7.10 (a),
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
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 Tensile Strength, TS
Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 7.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
TS
F = fracture or
sy
ultimate
engineering

strength
stress

Typical response of a metal

Neck acts
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
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 Yield Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt

1000
Yield strength, sy (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

700 W (pure)

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

600 Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)
400 Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd Room temperature
300
values
Hard to measure ,

Hard to measure,
Al (6061) ag
200 Steel (1020) hr
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
100
a = annealed
dry
70 PC
hr = hot rolled
60 Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 Al (6061) a PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered
20

LDPE
Tin (pure) 31
10
 Tensile Strength: Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

AFRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)
Cu (71500) cw Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
300
Steel (1020)
Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
Room temperature
200 Ta (pure)
values
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B4,
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
40 Concrete PVC GFRE( fiber) a = annealed
PP CFRE( fiber)
30 hr = hot rolled
AFRE( fiber)
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood ( fiber)
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1 32
Ductility()

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 Ductility
Lf - Lo
Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL = x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, s larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf
Adapted from Fig. 7.13,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Engineering tensile strain, e

Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao

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Resilience(, ), Ur

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 Resilience, Ur
Ability of a material to store energy
Energy stored best in elastic region
ey
Ur = sde
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur @ sy e y
2
Adapted from Fig. 7.15,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
38
 Toughness()
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

Engineering small toughness (ceramics)

tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, s
Adapted from Fig. 7.13, very small toughness
Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, e

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
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7.7

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7.8

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 Elastic Strain Recovery

sy i D

syo
2. Unload
Stress

1. Load 3. Reapply
load
Strain

Adapted from Fig. 7.17, Elastic strain

Callister & Rethwisch 3e. recovery
43
7.10 Fexural Strength of Ceramics)

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Mechanical Properties of Ceramics
Ceramic materials are more brittle than metals.
Why is this so?
Consider mechanism of deformation
In crystalline, by dislocation motion
In highly ionic solids, dislocation motion is difficult
few slip systems
resistance to motion of ions of like charge (e.g., anions)
past one another

45
 Flexural Tests Measurement of
Elastic Modulus
Room T behavior is usually elastic, with brittle failure.
3-Point Bend Testing often used.
-- tensile tests are difficult for brittle materials.
cross section F Adapted from Fig. 7.18,
L/2 L/2 Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
d R
b d = midpoint
rect. circ.
deflection
Determine elastic modulus according to:
F F L3
x E= (rect. cross section)
F d 4bd 3
slope =
d F L3
E= (circ. cross section)
d d 12R 4
linear-elastic behavior
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 Flexural Tests Measurement of
Flexural Strength
3-point bend test to measure room-T flexural strength.
cross section F
L/2 L/2 Adapted from Fig. 7.18,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
d R
b d = midpoint
rect. circ.
deflection
location of max tension

Flexural strength: Typical values:

Material sfs (MPa) E(GPa)
3Ff L
sfs = (rect. cross section) Si nitride 250-1000 304
2
2bd Si carbide 100-820 345
Al oxide 275-700 393
Ff L
sfs = (circ. cross section) glass (soda-lime) 69 69
3
R Data from Table 7.2, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

47
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7.16 (Hardness)

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 7.19 Property Variability and
Design Safety Factors
Elastic modulus is material property
Critical properties depend largely on
sample flaws (defects, etc.). Large
sample to sample variability.
Statistics
n
Mean xn
x=
n
1
n 2 2
x i - x
s=
Standard Deviation n -1

56
where n is the number of data points
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 Summary
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

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