*

Petrochemical Engineering Department

Chapter 4- Chapter 6

By: Mr Khairil Fazly Bin Bachok

*CHAPTER 4: BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
ELECTROMAGNETISM

4.1 Explain relationship between current flow and magnetism

4.2 Explain the characteristics of magnetic quantities in
electromagnet
* 4.1 Relationship between current flow and magnetism

Magnet
Magnet can be defined as material that can attract piece of
iron or metal.
Magnet has two poles north and south.
Material that attracted by magnet is known as magnetic
substances.
The ability to attract the magnetic substances is known as
magnetism.
* Principles of magnet

Magnet has a magnetic field around the magnet itself.

Magnetic field is the force around the magnet which can
attract any magnetic material around it.
Flux magnet is the line ground the magnet bar which form
magnetic field.
* Basic magnet Law

Magnetic flux lines have a direction and pole.

The direction of movement outside the magnetic field lines is
from north to south.
The strongest magnetic fields are at the magnetic poles.
Different poles attract each other and same magnetic poles
will reject each other.
Flux form a complete loop and never intersect with each
other.
Flux will try to form loop as small as possible.
* Types Of Magnet

There are two(2) types of magnet known as pure magnet and

manufacture magnet.

i. Pure magnet,
Pure magnet is magnet stone.The stone originally have the
natural magnetic.Basically the stone is found in the form of iron
ore.

ii. Manufacture/artifical magnet,

There are two(2) types of manufacture which is permanent
magnet and temporary magnet.
a) Permanent magnet
The ability of the magnet to kept its magnetism.
Basically permanent magnet is used in a small device sch as
speakers,meter and compass.
Permanent magnet can be obtained by naturally or magnetic
induction and placing a magnet into a coil then supplied with a
high electrical current.

b) Temporary magnet
An electric current can be used for making temporary magnets
known as electromagnet.
It has magnetic properties when subjected to magnetic force
and it will be lost when power is removed.
Typically the temporary magnet is used in electrical component
such as relay and small devices such as electrical bell.
* Electromagnet

Electromagnet is a magnetic iron core produced when the

current flowing through the coil.
Thus, the magnetic field can be produced when there is a
current flow through a conductor.
The direction of the magnetic produced by the current in the
solenoid can be determined using two(2) methods:
i. Right hand grip rule
ii. Maxwells screw Law
a) Right hand grip rule
Right hand grip rule is physics principle applied to electric
current passing through a solenoid,resulting in magnetic field.
By wrapping the right hand around the solenoid,thumb is
pointing in the direction of magnetic north pole and fingers in
the direction of the conventional current.
This rule can also be applied to electricity passing through a
straight wire.
The thumb points in the direction of the conventional current
from positive to negative.
Meanwhile the fingers points of the magnetic lines of flux.
b) Maxwells Screw law
A right-handed screw is turned so that it moves forward in the
same direction as the current,its direction of rotation will
give the direction of the magnetic field from south to north.
* Electromagnetic effect.
A flow of current through a wire produces a magnetic field in a
circular path around the wire.
The field patterns of a current flow in a conductor can be
determine using both rules of right hand grip or Maxwells
Screw.

a) Single conductor
The direction of field pattern in going and out going produced
by a current flowing through a single conductor can be
determine by applying both rules as figure below
b) Two conductors
If the two conductors where the current flow in the same
direction,the magnetic flux pattern will produce around both
conductors and combine to create attraction between them as
figure below.
* Electromagnetic Strength.
There are four(4) factors that effect electromagnetic strength:
1) Number of turns
The strength of the electromagnet is directly proportional to
the number of the turn in the coil.
By varying the number of turns in coil can produce very strong
magnetic fields and its strength.

2) Current strength
The strength of the electromagnet is directly proportional to
the current flowing in the coil.
Greater the current flow through the coil,stronger will be the
magnetic fields produced.
3) Length of coil
The strength of the electromagnet is directly proportional to
the length of the coil.
By coil up the wire can increasing the length and increase the
force of the magnetic field.

4) Types of conductor
Depend on the nature of the core material.
The use of soft of core can produces the strongest magnetism.
* ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

When a conductor is move across a magnetic field,an

electromagnetic force(emf) is produced in conductor.
The effect is known as electromagnetic induction.
The effect of electromagnetic induction will cause induced
current.
There are two laws of electromagnetic induction:
a) Faradays Law
b) Lens Law
a) Faradays Law

Faradays law is a fundamental relationship which comes from

Maxwells equation.
It is a relative movement of the magnetic flux and the
conductor then causes an emf and thus the current to be
induced in the conductor.
Induced emf on the conductor could be produced by two(2)
method:
i. Flux cuts conductor
Flux cut conductor is when the magnet is move towards the
coil as shown below,a deflection is noted on galvanometer
showing that a current has been produced in the coil.
ii. Conductor cuts flux
Conductor cut flux is when the conductor is moved through a
magnetic field as shown below.

An emf is induced in the conductor and thus a source of emf is

created between the ends of the conductor.
This is the simple concept of AC generator.This induced
electromagnetic field is given by:
* Ex 1: A conductor 300mm long moves at a uniform speed of
4m/s at right-angles to a uniform magnetic field of flux density
1.25T.Determine the current flowing in the conductor when:
a) Its ends are open-circuit
b) Its end are connected to load of 20 resistance.

Solution:
b) Lenz law
The direction of an induced emf is always such that it tends to
set up a current opposing the motion or the change of flux
responsible for inducing that emf.
4.2 The characteristics of magnetic quantities in
electromagnet

There are many magnetic quantities in the System Internatinal(SI)

unit.
This chapter is only going to discuss on magnetomotive
force,magnetic field strength,magnetic flux density,permeability and
reluctance.

a) Magnetomotive force,Fm
Magnetomotive force is a cause of the existance of magnetic flux in a
magnetic circuit.
The total flux produced is depends on the number of turn(N) made in
the circuit.
It is also proportional to the current (I) passing through the coil.
Then,the magnetomotive force is the product of current and the
number of turns.
b) Magnetic Field Strength,H
Magnetic field strength or magnetizing force is defined as
magnetomotive force,Fm per meter length of measurement
being ampere-turn per meter.
* EX 1: A current of 500mA is passed through a 600 turn wound
of a toroid of mean diameter 10cm.Calculate the magnetic
field strength.

* Solution:
c) Magnetic Flux and Flux density
Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field produed by a
megnetic source.
The symbol for magnetic flux is phi().
The unit for magnetic flux is the weber,Wb.
Magnetic flux density is the amount of flux passing through a
defined area that is perpendicular to the direction of flux:

The symbol for magnetic flux density is B.

The unit of magnetic flux density is the tesla,T.
The unit for area A is m2 where 1 T=Wb/m.
* Ex 1: A magnetic pole face has rectangular section having
dimensions 200mm by 100mm .If the total flux emerging from
the pole is 150Wb,calculate the flux density.

Solution:
d) Permeability
Permeability is the measure of ability of the material to allow
the magnetic field to exist in it.
Absolute permeability , of a material is the ratio of flux
density to magnetic field strength.

If the magnetic fileds exist in the vacuum,the ratio of the flux

density to the magnetic strength is a constant called
permeability of free space.
For air or any other non-magnetic medium,the ratio of
magnetic flux density to magnetic field is constant
The equation for permeability of free space in non-magnetic
medium is shown below
The permeability of free space ,0 is equal to 4 x10-7 H/m.
In the air or any non-magnetic material r=1.This is the same
magnetic properties as a vacuum.
r is relative permeability and it is considered when the
diffrerent type of material is used.
r is defined as the ratio of the flux density produced in the
material that produced in the air or define as:

r varies with the type of magnetic material.

The approximate ranges of relative permeability for some
common magnetic meterials are as follows:
Therefore the permeability for all media than free space in a
magnetic medium or material is a shown below:

Ex 1: A flux density of 1.2T is produced in a piece of cast steel

by magnetizing force of 1250A/m.Find the relative
permeability of steel under these conditions.

Solution:
e) Reluctance
Reluctance ,S is the magnetic resistance of a magnetic circuit
to presence of magnetic flux.
The equation for reluctance:

The unit for reluctance is 1/H or H-1 or A/Wb.

Ex 1: Determine the reluctance of a piece of metal with length

150mm ,when the relative permeability is 4000.Find the absolute
permeability of the metal.
*CHAPTER 5: TRANSFORMER
5.1 Explain the principles of transformer
* 5.1 Introduction

A transformer is a device which uses the phenomenon of

mutual induction to change the values of alternating voltages
and currents.
In fact, one of the main advantages of alternating current
transmission and distribution is the ease with an alternating
voltage can be increased or decreased by the transformer.
Losses in transformers are generally low and thus efficiency is
high.Being static they have a long life and very stable.
Transformer range in size from miniature units used in
electronic applications to the power transformers used in
power stations.
* 5.2 Transformer construction

A transformer consists of two windings connected by a

magnetic core.
Primary winding is connected to a power supply and the other
winding is connected to load.

Function of primary winding is to receive the energy from the

AC source, laminated core provide a path for the magnetic
line of flux and secondary winding is to receive energy from
the primary winding and delivers it to the load.
* 5.3 Operating principles

When an alternating voltage,VAC is apply to a primary winding

and the secondary winding is an open-circuit, a small current
will flows in the primary winding which produces induce emf
,e1 in the laminated core.
The alternating flux will links with secondary coils then
produces mutual induced emf of e2.
In the ideal transformer,the rate of chage of flux is the same
for both primary and secondary
 The induced emf per turn is constant.By assuming no losses,
E1 =VP and E2 =VS

When load is connect across the secondary winding, a current

IS flows.
In an ideal transformer,losses are neglected and a transformer
is consider to be 100% efficient.
Hence input powers=output power or VPIP =VSIS , the primary
and secondary volt-amperes ae equal.
Thus,

Combination equations above gives the relationship of primary

and secondary in terms of winding,voltage and current;
* 5.4 Transformer Ratio

Transformer ratio is the comparison between primary and

secondary elements.
Flux which produced by primary winding completely inducing to
secondary winding.
Therefore,emf induced in all windings are similar for primary
and secondary winding.
* Constant K is known as voltage trasformation ratio,then

* If Ns< Np then K<1 threfore this is called stepd-down transformer.

* If Ns >Np then K>1 therefore is called step-up transformer.
* For Ns=Np then K=1 therefore this coupling transformer.
* Ex 1:A transformer is to be used to provide a 60V output from
* a 240 V AC supply.Calculate:
* i) the turns of ratio required and
* ii) the number of primary turns, if the secondary is wound
* with 500 turns.
* Transformer EMF equations

* The magnetic flux set up in the core of the transformer

when an alternating voltage is applied to its primary winding
is also alternating and is sinusoidal.
* Let m be the maximum value of the flux and f be the
frequency of the supply. The time for 1 cycle of the
alternating flux is the periodic time T, where T =(1/f )
second.
* The flux rises sinusoidally from zero to its maximum value in
(1/4) cycle, and the time for (1/4) cycle is (1/4f ) seconds.
* Hence the average rate of change of flux=(m/(1/4f ))=4
fm Wb/s, and since 1 Wb/s=1 volt, the average e.m.f.
induced in each turn=4 fm volts
* For a sinusoidal wave the rms or effective value is 1.11
times the average value,
* therefore the rms value of emf induced per turn is as shown
in equation below:
*
* E = 1.11 4 f Fm

* Hence the rms value of emf induced in primary is:

*
* E1 = 4.44 NP f Fm volts

* and rms value of emf induced in secondary is:

* E2 = 4.44 NS f Fm volts
* Ex 1: A 250 kVA, 1100 V / 400 V, 50 Hz single-phase
transformer has 80 turns on a secondary. Calculate:
* a) the approximate values of the primary and secondary
currents.
* b) the approximate number of primary turns.
* c) the maximum values of flux.