Darcys law

Groundwater Hydraulics

Daene C. McKinney

1
 Outline
Darcys Law
Hydraulic Conductivity
Heterogeneity and Anisotropy
Refraction of Streamlines
Generalized Darcys Law

2
 Darcy

http://biosystems.okstate.edu/Darcy/English/index.htm 3
 Darcys Experiments
Discharge is
hL
Proportional to P1/g

Area
L
Head difference
P2/g
Inversely proportional to v
h1 Q h2
Length

,A
Coefficient of z1 Sand

ea
Ar
column
proportionality is Datum z2
plane
K = hydraulic conductivity Q

h1 h2 h2 - h1 Dh
QA Q = -KA Q = -KA
L L L
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 Darcys Data
35
Set 1, Series 1
30 Set 1, Series 2

25 Set 1, Series 3
Flow, Q (l/min)

Set 1, Series 4
20
Set 2
15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20
Gradient (m/m)

5
 Hydraulic Conductivity
Has dimensions of velocity [L/T]
A combined property of the medium and the fluid
Ease with which fluid moves through the medium

k = cd2 intrinsic permeability Porous medium property

= density
= dynamic viscosity Fluid properties
g = specific weight

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Hydraulic Conductivity

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 Groundwater Velocity
q - Specific discharge
Discharge from a unit cross-
section area of aquifer
formation normal to the
direction of flow.
v - Average velocity
Average velocity of fluid
flowing per unit cross-
sectional area where flow is Q q Q
q v
ONLY in pores. A A

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 Example
h1 = 12m h2 = 12m

K = 1x10-5 m/s
= 0.3 /

Find q, Q, and v 10m Porous medium

Flow

5m
L = 100m

dh = (h2 - h1) = (10 m 12 m) = -2 m

J = dh/dx = (-2 m)/100 m = -0.02 m/m

q = -KJ = -(1x10-5 m/s) x (-0.02 m/m) = 2x10-7 m/s

Q = qA = (2x10-7 m/s) x 50 m2 = 1x10-5 m3/s

v = q/ = 2x10-7 m/s / 0.3 = 6.6x10-7 m/s

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 Hydraulic Gradient

Gradient vector points in the direction of greatest rate of increase of h

Specific discharge vector points in the opposite direction of h

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 Well Pumping in an Aquifer
Hydraulic gradient

y
Circular hydraulic
head contours Dh

K, conductivity,
Is constant q Specific discharge
x
Well, Q

h1
h2 h3

h1 < h2 < h3

Aquifer (plan view) 11

 Validity of Darcys Law
We ignored kinetic energy (low velocity)
We assumed laminar flow
We can calculate a Reynolds Number for the flow
rqd10
NR =
m
q = Specific discharge
d10 = effective grain size diameter
Darcys Law is valid for NR < 1 (maybe up to 10)

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Specific Discharge vs Head Gradient

Experiment
Re = 10 shows this

Re = 1 Darcy Law
predicts this

a
q
tan-1(a)= (1/K)

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 Estimating Conductivity
Kozeny Carman Equation
Kozeny used bundle of capillary tubes model to derive an
expression for permeability in terms of a constant (c) and
the grain size (d)

3 2
k cd
2 d Kozeny Carman eq.
180(1 ) 2

So how do we get the parameters we need for this

equation?

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 Measuring Conductivity
Permeameter Lab Measurements
Darcys Law is useless unless we can measure the
parameters
Set up a flow pattern such that
We can derive a solution
We can produce the flow pattern experimentally
Hydraulic Conductivity is measured in the lab with a
permeameter
Steady or unsteady 1-D flow
Small cylindrical sample of medium

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 Measuring Conductivity
Constant Head Permeameter

Flow is steady Continuous Flow

Sample: Right circular cylinder

Length, L
Area, A head difference
Overflow

Constant head difference (h) is

applied across the sample
producing a flow rate Q
Darcys Law flow
A
Outflow
b Q
Q = KA
L
Sample
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 Measuring Conductivity
Falling Head Permeameter
Flow rate in the tube must equal that in the column
dh
Qtube = prtube
2
dt
Initial head
h
Qcolumn = prcolumn
2
K
L
Final head
rtube L dh
2
= dt
column K h
r

flow

Outflow
Q

Sample
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 Heterogeneity and Anisotropy
Homogeneous
Properties same at every
point
Heterogeneous
Properties different at every
point
Isotropic
Properties same in every
direction
Anisotropic
Properties different in different
directions
Often results from stratification
during sedimentation
K horizontal K vertical
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www.usgs.gov
 Example
a = ???, b = 4.673x10-10 m2/N, g = 9798 N/m3,
S = 6.8x10-4, b = 50 m, = 0.25,
Saquifer = gabb ???
Swater = gbb

% storage attributable to water expansion

%storage attributable to aquifer expansion

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 Layered Porous Media
(Flow Parallel to Layers)
Piezometric surface

Dh
h1
h2

datum
b1 K1 Q1

3 Q
b b2 K2 Q2

=
=1
b3 K3 Q3

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 Layered Porous Media
(Flow Perpendicular to Layers)
Piezometric surface
Dh1
Dh2 Dh
Dh3

K1 K2 K3

Q
b
Q

3

=

=1

L1 L2 L3
L 21
 Example

Flow Q

Find average K

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 Flow Q Example

Find average K

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 Anisotrpoic Porous Media
General relationship between specific
discharge and hydraulic gradient

K is symmetric, i.e., Kij = Kji.

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 Principal Directions
h
Often we can align the q x K xx 0

0 x
coordinate axes in the h
q y = - 0 K yy 0
principal directions of y
qz 0 0
K zz h
layering z

Horizontal conductivity h
often order of qx = -K xx
x
magnitude larger than h
qy = -K yy
vertical conductivity y
h
qz = -K zz
K xx = K yy = K Horiz >> K zz = KVert z

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 Flow between 2 adjacent flow lines

=

For the squares of the flow net

=
so
=

For entire flow net, total head

loss h is divided into n squares

=

If flow is divided into m channels
by flow lines

= =

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 Flow lines are
perpendicular
KU/KL = 1/50 to water table
contours

Flow lines are

parallel to
impermeable
boundaries

KU/KL = 50

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 Contour Map of Groundwater Levels
Contours of
groundwater level
(equipotential lines)
and Flowlines
(perpendicular to
equipotiential lines)
indicate areas of
recharge and discharge

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 Groundwater Flow Direction
Water level
measurements from
three wells can be used
Groundwater
to determine Contours
groundwater flow hi > hj > hk
direction Head Gradient, J hi hj
hk
h1(x1,y1)
h3(x3,y3)

z
y Groundwater
Flow, Q

h2(x2,y2)

x
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 Groundwater Flow Direction
Head gradient =

Magnitude of head gradient =

Angle of head gradient =

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 Groundwater Flow Direction
Head Gradient, J

h1(x1,y1)
h3(x3,y3)

z
Equation of a plane in 2D
y Groundwater
Flow, Q
3 points can be used to
define a plane h2(x2,y2)

Set of linear equations can be solved for a,

b and c given (xi, hi, i=1, 2, 3)

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Groundwater Flow Direction
Negative of head gradient in x direction

Negative of head gradient in y direction

Magnitude of head gradient

Direction of flow

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Example
Find:
y
Well 2
(200 m, 340 m) Magnitude of head gradient
55.11 m
Direction of flow

Well 1
(0 m,0 m)
57.79 m
x

Well 3
(190 m, -150 m)
52.80 m 33
 Example
Well 2
(200, 340)
55.11 m

Well 1 x
(0,0) q = -5.3 deg
57.79 m

Well 3
(190, -150)
52.80 m 34
 Refraction of Streamlines
y
Vertical component of
velocity must be the same
q1 Upper Formation
on both sides of interface q1
K1
qy1 = qy2
q1 cos q1 = q2 sin q 2
K2 q2 x

Head continuity along K2 K1 q2

interface Lower Formation

h1 = h2 @ y = 0

So
K1 tan q1
=
K 2 tan q 2

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Consider a leaky confined aquifer
with 4.5 m/d horizontal hydraulic
conductivity is overlain by an
aquitard with 0.052 m/d vertical
hydraulic conductivity. If the flow in
the aquitard is in the downward
direction and makes an angle of 5o
with the vertical, determine q2.

1 1
=
2 2

0.052 / 5
=
4.5 / 2

2 = 82.5

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 Summary
Properties Aquifer Storage
Darcys Law
Darcys Experiment
Specific Discharge
Average Velocity
Validity of Darcys Law
Hydraulic Conductivity
Permeability
Kozeny-Carman Equation
Constant Head Permeameter
Falling Head Permeameter
Heterogeneity and Anisotropy
Layered Porous Media
Refraction of Streamlines
Generalized Darcys Law

37
 Example

Flow Q

K1z1 + K 2 z2 (2.3 m / d)(15 m) + (12.8 m / d)(15 m)

K h,A = = = 7.55 m / d
z1 + z2 (15 m) + (15 m)

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 Flow Q Example

z1 + z2 (15 m) + (15 m)
K v,A = = = 3.90 m / d
z1 z2 15 m 15 m
+ +
K1 K 2 2.3 m / d 12.8 m / d

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