UNIT 7

FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

PERSONALITY
 PERSONALITY
Personality refers to individual differences in
characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling
and behaving.
The study of personality focuses on two
broad areas: One is understanding individual
differences in particular personality
characteristics, such as sociability or
irritability.
The way an individual interacts with and
responds to his or her environment.
Refers to a set if unique characteristics
that makes an individual different from
others .
Nature : Internal and external elements,
relatively stable , Inherited and
dependant on the environment.
Gordon Allport defined Personality as the
dynamic organisation within the individual of
those Psycho-Physical Systems that determine
his unique adjustments to his environment.

Personality can be described more specifically

as "how a person affects others, how he
understands and views himself and his
pattern of inner and outer measurable traits."
 From this definition, it can be understood one's
physical appearance and behaviour affects others.

Understanding oneself means one is unique with a

set of attitudes and values and a self-concept.
Finally, the pattern of measurable traits refers to a
set of characteristics that the person exhibits.
 Nature of personality
Has both internal and external elements
It is relatively stable
Inherited and shaped by the
environment .
Strikingly different from one individual to
another
Theories of personality
 1.Type Theories
Classification on the basis
of body structure :
(Kretschemer and Sheldon)
Three body types are:
Endomorph - Fleshy and inclined towards
fatness.
The personality characteristics reflected
are:
Friendly, oriented towards people, seek
others when troubled, slow to react, loves
to eat.
Mesomorph - Athletic and inclined to be
muscular
The personality characteristics reflected
are:
Seeks physical adventure, needs and
enjoys exercise, restless, aggressive, likes
risk and chance, competitive.
Ectomorph - Thin and inclined to '

be fine-boned and fragile.

The personality characteristics
reflected are:
Likes privacy, socially inhibited,
quick to react and hypersensitive
to pain.
 2.Trait theory
Enduring attribute of a person
that appears consistently in
varied situations.
Done through personality
Inventory Questionnaire
 3.Psychoanalytic Theory

Sigmund Freud
Composed of Three
elements Id , Ego ,
superego
Id- Latin word for It.- innate component
mental agency containing everything that is
inherited, present at birth and is in instincts-
raw , animalistic, unorganised , obeys no rule,
basic to individual life Justifies the primary
principle of human life ie immediate discharge
of psychic energy( libido) and is based on the
pleasure principle may be through
imagination at times.
By Id it means pleasure.
To certain degree of having Id in an individual is
constructive but may also lead to destructive
tendencies like being aggressive, dominating, fighting
and generally destroy.
The part of the psyche, residing in the unconscious,
that is the source of instinctive impulses that seek
satisfaction in accordance with the pleasure principle
and are modified by the ego and the superego before
they are given overt expression.
This kind of instincts is more
dominating in childhood.
But once individuals develop and
mature they learn to control the id.
But it is always unconscious.
Throughout life the `id' becomes
important source of thinking and
behaving.
 Ego:The I or self of any person;
Develops out of Id to satisfy the real
world Tests the reality
Ego represents `conscious' stage in
one's behaviour. Though Id comes in
conflict with ego, the ego depends
on the super ego.
Superego : Systems of values , ethics , norms and
attitude which are reasonably compatible strive
for perfection.
It represents "conscience". An individual is not
aware of the superego's functioning. The
conscience is dependent on two factors that is
cultural values and moral of a society. Superego's
development depends mostly on parent's
influence. Once the child grows up the child will
unconsciously identify with parents value and
morals.
There is always tussle between id,
ego and superego. The degree of
each of them varies from person to
person. So the variations in
individual's behaviour can be better
understood with the help of this
model.
 4. Social Learning Theory
Two types of learning : Learning through experience or through reinforcement
and learning through observing others ( Vicarious Learning)
Regard situation as an important determinant of behaviour .
Individual Determinants of behaviour : Competencies, Cognitive strategies,
Outcome expectations ,Subjective value outcomes , Self regulatory systems
and plans
 5. Humanistic approach
Rogers Self Theory : Phenomenology
is the study of individuals subjective
experiences, feelings and private
concepts as well as his view of the
self and that of the world .
Shaping of Personality
 Freuds Stages of Personality Development

Stage Age Major Characteristics

Oral 0-1 year Interest in oral gratification from sucking, eating, mouthing, and biting.
Anal 1-3years Gratification from expelling and withholding faeces; coming
to terms with societys controls relating to toilet-training
Phallic 3-4 years lnterest in the genitals, coming to terms with Oedipal conflict,
leading to identification with same-sex parent
Latency 4-6 years to Sexual concerns large unimportant
adolescence
Genital Adolescence Re-emergence of sexual interests and establishment of
to adulthood mature sexual relationships.
 DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS

CULTURAL FACTORS

SOCIAL FACTORS

SITUATIONAL FACTORS
 BIOLOGICAL
FACTORS
Brain is one of the most important factors
of personality determinant. It is generally
believed that the father and the child adopt
almost the same type of brain stimulation
and the later differences are the result of
the environment in which the child has
been grown up.
Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB) and
Split Brain Psychology (SBP) and the
outcomes of genetic transmissions and are
the tools that are used by the management
of any organization to mould and amend
the employees behavior to a more positive
and proper one.
One of the most important factors in
determining personality is the Physical
Characteristics of an individual. It is
believed that this factor plays a vital role
in determining ones behavior in any
organization. Physical features may
involve the height of a person (short or
tall), his colour (white or black), his
health status (fat or skinny) and his
beauty (handsome or ugly).
These factors are involved when
interacting with any other person and
thus contribute in the personality
development in many ways.
Last, but not the least, the heredity factors play a very
important role as the major determinants and factors of
personality. Heredity factors are the ones that are
determined at the time of conception. These factors not only
affect the physical features of a person, but the intelligence
level, attentiveness, gender, temperament, various inherited
diseases and energy level, all get affected by them.
The example of how heredity factors determine such a huge
and significant part of an individuals personality can easily
be observed in children. Many children behave exactly how
their parents do. Similarly, twin siblings also have a lot of
things in common.
SOCIAL FACTORS
Social factors also play a vital role in
determining ones personality. The
things that revolve and evolve
around us on a regular basis
determine our personality.
The society that we live in, the
cultural environment that we face
daily, the community we get
interacted to, all are included in this
factor. Relationships, co-ordination,
co-operation, interaction,
environment in the family,
organizations, workplaces,
communities, societies all
contribute in way or another as
personality determinants.
CULTURAL & RELIGIOUS FACTORS
The culture in which one lives in,
that may involve traditional
practices, norms, customs,
procedures, rules and regulations,
precedents and values, all are
important determinants of
personality.
Moreover, the creed, religion and
believes are also very important
factors of personality
determinants.
 SITUATIONAL FACTORS
Although these factors do not literally create and shape up an
individuals personality, situational factors do alter a persons
behavior and response from time to time. The situational
factors can be commonly observed when a person behaves
contrastingly and exhibits different traits and characteristics.
For example, a persons behavior will be totally different when
he is in his office, in front of his boss, when compared to his
hangout with old friends in a bar.
In this way, situational factors impact a personality in a
significant way. They often bring out the traits of a person that
are not commonly seen.
The Big Five Personality Traits
More Personality Traits
 Authoritarian personality
Authoritarian personality is a state of
mind or attitude characterized by belief
in absolute obedience or submission to
one's own authority, as well as the
administration of that belief through
the oppression of one's subordinates.
Locus of control
A personality orientation characterized
either by the belief that one can control
events by one's own efforts (internal
locus of control) or that the future is
determined by forces outside one's
control (external locus of control).
 Machiavellianism
A personality trait which sees a person
so focused on their own interests they
will manipulate, deceive, and exploit
others to achieve their goals. Is a
personality trait that is characterized
with the use of manipulation to achieve
power.
Introvert/ Extrovert:
Introvert: Shy, self-centered person
whose attention is focused inward
Extrovert: Bold, outgoing person
whose attention is directed
outward
Achievement orientation

Achievement orientation is a drive to

accomplish ones goals and to meet or exceed
a high standard of success. Achievement-
oriented people often want to do things
better or more efficiently than they have been
done in the past.
Achievement-oriented people tend to be leaders.
Their drive to achieve causes others to gravitate
toward them and follow them. Because producing
high-quality work is so important to them, they
usually like overseeing a team and making sure the
job gets done right. They are strategic and tactical
thinkers. No matter what situation or
circumstances confront them, they always go
about things in a proactive and well thought
through manner.
 Self-esteem
Self-esteem is used to describe a person's overall
sense of self-worth or personal value.
Self-esteem is often seen as a personality trait,
which means that it tends to be stable and
enduring.
Self-esteem can involve a variety of beliefs about
the self, such as the appraisal of one's own
appearance, beliefs, emotions, and behaviors.
Those who consistently receive
overly critical or negative
assessments from caregivers, family
members, and friends, superiors or
colleagues for example, will likely
experience problems with low self-
esteem.
Risk-taking
This personality trait defined by the search for
experiences and feelings, that are "varied,
novel, complex and intense", and by the
readiness to "take physical, social, legal, and
financial risks for the sake of such experiences
This behavior refers to the tendency to
engage in activities that have the potential to
be harmful or dangerous.
Self-monitoring
Self-monitoring is a personality characteristic that makes an
individual pay closer attention to a social situation so that they can
change their behaviors to fit that situation.
The ability to both observe and evaluate one's behavior.
People who are high self-monitors constantly watch other people,
what they do and how they respond to the behavior of others. Such
people are hence very self-conscious and like to 'look good' and will
hence usually adapt well to differing social situations.
On the other hand, low self-monitors are generally oblivious to how
other see them and hence march to their own different drum.
Type A and Type B personality theory
Type A and Type B personality theory
describes two contrasting personality types.
In this theory, personalities that are more
competitive, outgoing, ambitious, impatient
and/or aggressive are labeled Type A,
while more relaxed personalities are labeled
Type B.
 Type A
The theory describes Type A individuals as
ambitious, rigidly organized, highly status-
conscious, sensitive, impatient, anxious, proactive,
and concerned with time management.
People with Type A personalities are often high-
achieving "workaholics." They push themselves
with deadlines, and hate both delays and
ambivalence (uncertainty)
 Type B
Type B personality, by definition, are noted to live at
lower stress levels. They typically work steadily, and
may enjoy achievement, although they have a greater
tendency to disregard physical or mental stress when
they do not achieve. When faced with competition,
they may focus less on winning or losing than their
Type A counterparts, and more on enjoying the game
regardless of winning or losing.
Type B individuals are sometimes attracted to
careers of creativity: writer, counselor,
therapist, actor or actress. However, network
and computer systems managers, professors,
and judges are more likely to be Type B
individuals as well. Their personal character
may enjoy exploring ideas and concepts. They
are often reflective, and think of the "outer
and inner world".
 LEARNING IN ORGANISATIONS
LEARNING
1. A persisting change in human
performance or performance potential
(brought) about as a result of the
learners interaction with the
environment (Driscoll, 1994).
2. The relatively permanent
change in a persons
knowledge or behavior due
to experience (Mayer,
1982).
3. An enduring change in
behavior, or in the capacity to
behave in a given fashion, which
results from practice or other
forms of experience (Shuell,
1986).
Any relatively permanent change in
behavior that occurs as a result of
experience.
Learning
Involves change
Is relatively permanent
Is acquired through experience
Formal learning
This is normally delivered by trained
teachers in a systematic intentional way
within a school. It is planned learning
that derives from activities within a
structured learning setting. It is
achieved by enrolling in a programme
of study, attending lectures, preparing
course work, engaging in
seminar/tutorial discussions etc.
Formal learning programs are typically
synonymous with full-scale learning
management systems (LMS), with
courses and curricula mapped in a
very structured way. As a result,
content is generally created by a
specified group of instructional
designers and trainers.
 The content development process
usually lasts longer with formal
learning programs, as those involved
are often tasked with creating long,
thorough presentations and
publishing via a potentially complex
LMS tool set.
Benefits of Formal Learning:

1.Large numbers of employees will

learn the same information and/or
processes at the same time.
2.If properly designed, the
course content should be
accurate and up to date.
3.Employees learning through formal
training programs come up to speed
faster once they start their jobs.
Informal learning
Informal learning is a persuasive ongoing
phenomena of learning via participation or via
knowledge creation. Informal learning
programs, provide a lot more flexibility in the
way content is both created and consumed
By removing the formality in learning
companies are usually able to create more
content quickly and deliver it to their
audiences in the way that makes the most
sense.
The idea here is that rather than limiting the
responsibilities of content development to a few
instructional designers, subject matter experts from
across the organization can now become part of the
process. Since anyone can create learning resources
quickly and easily, more content can be developed by
those who best understand the needs of the learners.
Characteristics of Informal Learning

1. Informal learning is never

organized.
2. Informal learners are often highly
motivated to learn.
3. Informal learning is often
spontaneous.
4. There is no formal curriculum.
5. The teacher is someone who cares
and who has more experience than
the learner.
6. The world is your classroom
7. Informal learning is difficult to
quantify.
8. Often dismissed by academics and
skeptics as being worthless.
 9. Essential to a childs early
development.
10. Essential to an adults lifelong
learning
Benefits of Informal Learning
Creating informal learning situations can be less costly
and more time efficient given all of the social media
technologies and electronic devices we have today.
Learning informally can be more personal and less
intimidating for some people.
 Subject-matter experts may be more willing to share
their knowledge with others this way.
Since learning this way happens more naturally during
the flow of someones work day, employees may be
less likely to resist learning new things.
Managing stress at work

What Is Stress?

A situation that creates

excessive psychological or
physiological demands on a
person.
Managing stress at work

What Is Stress?

A situation that creates

excessive psychological or
physiological demands on a
person.
 Stress is defined as an organism's total response to an environmental
condition or stimulus, also known as a stressor.
Stress typically describes a negative condition that can have an impact
on an organism's mental and physical well-being.
Stressors- Positive or Negative
KINDS OF STRESS
EUSTRESS-
POSITIVE
STRESS

DISTRESS-
NEGATIVE
STRESS
10/3/2017 71
WORK STRESS
Also known as Occupational Stress
"The adverse reaction people have to excessive
pressures or other types of demand placed on them
at work."
Stress is not an illness it is a state. However, if stress
becomes too excessive and prolonged, mental and
physical illness may develop.
Symptoms of Work Stress
STAGES OF STRESS

ALARM RESISTANCE EXHAUSTION

STAGE STAGE STAGE
FACTORS INFLUENCING WORK
STRESS AT WORKPLACE

demands
relationships
change:
Competition and change
Technological change
Increasingly diverse workforce
Downsizing
Employee empowerment and teamwork
Work/home conflict
 design of task
management style
working conditions
long hours,
work overload,
time pressure,
difficult or complex tasks,
lack of breaks, lack of variety,
and poor physical work conditions (for example, space, temperature, light).
Unclear work or conflicting roles and boundaries
Consequences of stress
Physiological symptoms
e.g., increased blood pressure, headaches, heart attacks
Psychological symptoms
e.g., job dissatisfaction, tension, anxiety, irritability, boredom, procrastination
Behavioural symptoms
Changes in productivity, absence, turnover, eating habits, smoking, drinking,
etc.
Signs of stress(physical)
Low energy.
Headaches.
Upset stomach, including diarrhoea, constipation and
nausea.
Aches, pains, and tense muscles.
Chest pain and rapid heartbeat.
Insomnia.
Frequent colds and infections.
Loss of sexual desire and/or ability.
Signs of stress contd
Nervousness and shaking,
ringing in the ear
Cold or sweaty hands and feet
Excess sweating
Dry mouth and difficulty swallowing
Clenched jaw and grinding teeth.
Emotional symptoms of stress include
Becoming easily agitated, frustrated and moody
Feeling overwhelmed, like you are losing control or need to take
control
Having difficulty relaxing and quieting your mind
Feeling bad about yourself (low self-esteem), lonely, worthless and
depressed
Avoiding others.
STRESS RELATED ILLNESSES
HEART DISESASES

ASTHMA

OBESITY

DIABETES

HEADACHES

Gastrointestinal problems

Alzheimer's disease

Accelerated aging

Premature death
10/3/2017 81
 Recognize warning signs of excessive stress at work
Tips to Reduce
Reduce job and Manage
stress Job andcare
by taking Workplace Stress
of yourself
Reduce job stress by prioritizing and organizing
Reduce job stress by improving emotional intelligence
Reduce job stress by breaking bad habits
 Working conditions are adapted to people's differing
physical and mental aptitudes
Employee is given the opportunity to participate in the
design of his/her own work situation, and in the
processes of change and development affecting
his/her work
Technology, work organisation, and job content are
designed so that the employee is not exposed to
physical or mental strains that may lead to illness or
accidents. Forms of remuneration and the distribution
of working hours are taken into account
 Closely controlled or restricted work is avoided or
limited Work should provide opportunities for variety,
social contact, and cooperation as well as coherence
between different working operations

Working conditions should provide opportunities for

personal and vocational development, as well as for
self determination and professional responsibility
TIME MANAGEMENT- A KEY TO REDUCE WORK STRESS

SCHEDULE A TIME TABLE

PRIOROTIZE YOUR WORK
LEARN TO SAY NO
ASSIGN TIME FOR EACH ACTIVITY
PUT A DO NOT DISTURB SIGN
AVOID DISTRACTONS
Why Do Individuals Differ in Their Experience
of Stress
Perception
Job experience
Social support
Belief in locus of control
Hostility
How Do We Manage Stress?

Individual Approaches
Time management
Physical activity
Relaxation techniques
Building social support
 Selection and placement decisions
Goal setting
Redesigning jobs
Increasing employee involvement
How Do We Manage Stress?
Increasing
Organizational Approaches
organizational communication
Providing organizational wellness programs
 Figure out where the stress is coming from.
Consider what you can controland work on that.
Do what you love.
Manage your time well.
Avoid electronic monitoring of staff. Personal supervision generates
considerably less stress.
Allow workers time to recharge after periods of intense or
demanding work.
 Deliver important information that significantly affects employees
face to face.
Encourage positive social interactions between staff to promote
problem solving around work issues and increase emotional support.
Keep in mind that staff need to balance privacy and social interaction
at work. Extremes can generate stress.
Tips for Reducing Stress

At least two or three times a week, spend time with supportive

friends or family.
Ask for support when you are under pressure. This is a sign of health,
not weakness.
If you have spiritual or religious beliefs, increase or maintain your
involvement.
Use a variety of methods to reduce stress. Consider exercise,
nutrition, hobbies, positive thinking, and relaxation techniques such
as meditation or yoga.
CONCLUSION

Modern life is full of hassles, deadlines, frustrations, and demands.

For many people, stress is so commonplace that it has become a way
of life. Stress isnt always bad. In small doses, it can help you perform
under pressure and motivate you to do your best. But when youre
constantly running in emergency mode, your mind and body pay the
price. You can protect yourself by recognizing the signs and symptoms
of stress and taking steps to reduce its harmful effects.
CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP
Leadership has three meanings:
First: Attribute of a person.
Second: A kind of behaviour
Third: Trait of a particular person that influences
other people
Leadership is the ability to convince people to follow a
path they have never taken before to a place they
have never been- and upon finding it to be successful,
do it over and over again.
DEFINITIONS
According to Keys and Case,
Leadership is the process of
influencing and supporting
others to work enthusiastically
towards achieving objectives.
According to James stoner,
Leadership is the process of
directing and influencing the
task related activities of group
members.
Nature of Leadership
Entrepreneurs have to be leaders to
survive in the competitive world.
Leaders are people who are able to
influence others and who posses
managerial authority.
Leader is at the apex who takes the
decisions, risks and otherwise and every
one follows.
 Leader is different from Manager
Manager Leader

He manages He innovates

Is appointed May be appointed or emerge

from within the group
Accepts status Challenges status and makes
his own place
Ability to influence is based on Can influence others to act
the formal authority beyond his formal authority
Relies on control Inspire trust
Manager Leader

Can be a good manager and Can be good leader and bad

bad leader manager
Asks how and when Asks what and why

Focus on doing things right Deals with vision and doing

right things
Management comes after Leadership comes before
leadership management
Focus on system and Focus on people
structure
 CHARACTERISTICS OF LEADERSHIP
Personal ability
Following
Influencing behaviour
Interpersonal relationship
Mutual goals
Its essence is performance through guiding and
influencing
May be situational
Assumes responsibility
Importance of communication
May be formal or informal
 FUNCTION OF ENTREPRENEUR AS A
LEADER
Formulates purpose : defines objective
Inspire actions: make contribution to goals
Interprets reasons: adopt to changes
Represents the institution: deal with outsiders
 FUNCTION OF ENTREPRENEUR AS A
LEADER
Group interaction: exchange of ideas
Goal accomplishment: maximise potential
Develops teamwork: develop co-operation
Directs and discipline employees
Solves internal conflicts and maintain stability.
LEADERSHIP TRAITS
Ability to inspire
Good decision and judgement
Intelligence
Initiative
Self-confidence
Supervisory ability
Achievement drive
Human relations attitude
Courage
Mental flexibility
LEADERSHIP TRAITS (CONTD.)
Ability to communicate
Tolerance
Empathy
Emotionally stable and mature
Honest
In depth knowledge of industry and related matters
Willingness to take responsibility
Convincing power
LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR

1. Creation of morals for employers An effective

leader assigns values to employees by himself being
an example. They are vigilant and keep
communicating their visions to the employees.
2. Respect begets respect To gain respect from
employees , the leader must first respect those who
works for them.
3. Winning trust of employees - Effective leaders soon
win the trust of their employees with the help of
psychological and intellectual traits they posses.
 LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR (Contd.)
4.Celebrate the employees success Effective
leaders give due recognition to their employees for
their commendable performance Rewards should be
given
for ex- Employee of the month

5.Encourage creativity among

workers Leaders not only encourage creativity among
workers but also apply the ideas generated by them.
 LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR (Contd.)
6.Accept differences among workers Leaders attempt to
harness their workers abilities and exploit them for the
benefit of organisation which will in turn benefit the
employees.
7.Create informal environment Leaders create informal
environment for their workers so that they dont feel
dullness in their work.
8.Employee-oriented leadership Where the leaders
emphasise interpersonal relations and take personal interest
in the needs of employees.
9.Leader-participation model This model confirms that
leadership behaviour is flexible and the leader can adapt his
or her style to different situations.
Women as Leaders
Women as leaders could have different leadership styles than men. A
study conducted on women leaders found that, Women see
leadership as changing self-interest of followers into concern for the
total enterprise by using interpersonal skills and personal traits to
motivate subordinates.

Difference in values of women leaders and men leaders

Men value individuality and value the rewards of working in a
competitive environment. Women value cooperative enterprises that
preserve or increase relationship.
Female managers or executives find it difficult to fit themselves into
corporate structure while maintaining their own sense of identity.
Female managers are more open and flexible. Men are more rule-
oriented and works in controlled manner.
Women are sometimes compelled to adopt masculine attitude to
succeed at higher level.
Types of Leadership
Positive and negative leadership:-
Leader who is striving to give rewards to employees is more
depending on positive leadership.
If leader emphasis on penalties, then the leader is applying negative
leadership.
Autocratic, Democratic and Free-rein leadership:-
The autocratic leaders lead by the ability to withhold or give rewards and
punishment.
The democratic leaders consult with subordinates on various proposals and also
encourage participation from them.
The free-rein leader uses his or her power very little and give a high degree of
independence to their subordinates in their operations.
Creative leadership:-
Creative leaders visualize opportunity in crises situation and solve a problem
before it becomes an emergency.
Types of Leadership
Situational leadership:-
The situational leadership is ability of leaders to adjust his or her
leadership style in accordance with the readiness of followers.
Charismatic leadership:-
A charismatic leader is one who has great charm or personal
power that can attract, influence and inspire people.
Visionary leadership:-
A visionary leadership is the ability to create and articulate a
realistic, credible and attractive vision of the future for an
organization or organizational unit that grows out of and
improves upon the present.
Transactional leadership:-
Such leaders are able to have profound and
extraordinary effect on his or her followers. They are
hard working and run organisation effectively and
effeciently.
Transformational leaders:-
They have the capacity to motivate followers, shape
the organizational culture and create a suitable
climate favorable for organizational change.
LEADERSHIP

STYLES
Authoritarian
aka Commanding (Goleman)
Leader makes key decisions
Outside input into decision limited
Workers told what to do & how to do it
More closely aligned with Theory X
Fear a key motivation
Authoritarian

Pros Cons
Fast, efficient Short-term gains outweighed
by long-term dysfunction
Great if you have an Loses wisdom, observations
extremely smart, wise leader of other key individuals
May be useful in a crisis
Applicable in organizations Employees disengaged,
with low-skilled workers demoralized
doing routine tasks? Talent flight
(some would disagree with this)
Pacesetting
Similar to Produce or Perish (Blake-Moulton)
Leader holds high standards for self & organization
Always demanding faster, better performance
If poor performance, pushes staff harder or fixes problem him/herself
Pacesetting
Pros
Works with very high-
talented, self-driven teams
Focused on results
May be useful in start-up,
entrepreneurial phase
Leader fixing problems for
staff may get short-term
results
Cons
Difficult to sustain pace;
anxiety, burnout
Obsession with results at
expense of staff wellbeing
Pressure for immediate
results may restrict creativity,
innovation
Micromanagement erodes
trust, stunts development
Visionary
Aka Transformational leadership
Leader articulates where group is heading
Sets forth an inspiring vision of the future
Builds excitement
Resonates with values, aspirations of staff
Leader helps staff see how their work will contribute to a better world
Visionary

Pros Cons
Gives clear direction to Conflicts if other strong
organization individuals in organization with
competing vision
Motivates, excites If implementation weak, failure to
employees achieve vision demotivates staff,
leads to cynicism
Paternalistic
Leader takes care of employees, gets strong loyalty in return
Employees feel like part of the family
Affiliative
Similar to Paternalistic, consistent with Country Club
Promotes harmony among followers
Nurture personal relationships, emotional needs of employees
Helps resolve any conflict
Build teams to ensure followers connected to each other
Affiliative / Paternalistic
Pros
Helpful in healing
organizations with serious
divisions, conflicts or broken
trust
May be popular in certain
regions of the world
Produces happier workers
Cons
Focus on praise,
relationships at expense of
results; may send message
that mediocrity is tolerated
Staff may not receive
enough specific advice on
how to improve
Coaching
Leader aims to bring out best in key staff
Invest in personal development of staff
Help staff set long-term goals
Identify strengths/weaknesses, help staff identify their calling
Delegate challenging assignments that will let them grow
Coaching

Pros Cons
Works well if leader has staff If staff not self-motivated,
who are self-motivated may not benefit from
coaching experience
Democratic Style
Seeks input from key people on important decisions
Listens carefully to concerns
Collective decision strengthened by buy-in, commitment across
organization
Democratic
Pros
Works well in organizations
with broad mix of highly
skilled individuals
Develops decisions with
strong shared ownership
Cons
May be difficult to implement
in settings, cultures where
staff afraid to give input
May take too long to arrive at
decisions; slow progress can
affect staff morale
Laissez-Faire
Leader trusts very talented staff to do their work, freely delegates
tasks
May set some general expectations for product but wide latitude on
how to achieve it
Key leadership task is to find the right talent in whom this level of
trust can be given
Laissez-Faire
Pros
Can be useful in
environments where highly
creative or motivated people
need space to innovate or
problem-solve
Cons
If staff not highly motivated
or talented, then
organization suffers from
lack of direction or guidance
with implementation
 Power /politics and Influence

Power
The ability of one person or department in an
organization to influence other people to bring
about desired outcomes
Power
A capacity that A has to influence the behaviour of B so that B acts
in accordance with As wishes.
Power is the capacity of a person, team, or organization to
influence others.
The potential to influence others
People have power they dont use and may not know they
possess
Power requires one persons perception of dependence on
another person
Influence
The effect a persons actions have on the attitudes, values, beliefs,
or actions of others

Dependency
Bs relationship to A when A possesses something that B
needs.
Sources of Managerial Power

1. Legitimate Power
The authority that a manager has by virtue
of his or her position in the firm.
Why does having power matter?
With power you can
Intercede favorably on behalf of someone in trouble
Get a desirable placement for a talented subordinate
Get approval for expenditures beyond the budget
Get items on and off agendas
Get fast access to decision makers
Maintain regular, frequent contact with decision makers
Acquire early information about decisions and policy shifts
2.Reward Power
The ability of a manager to give or withhold
tangible and intangible rewards
3. Coercive Power
The ability of a manager to punish others. Opposite of
reward power. Right to fire, demote, criticize, reprimand
or withdraw pay raises verbal reprimand, pay cuts, and
dismissal. This is limited in effectiveness and application
and can have serious negative side effects. The person can make
things difficult for people, and you want to avoid getting him or her angry.
Power that is based on fear.
4. Expert Power
Power that is based on special knowledge, skills, and
expertise that the leader possesses. It tends to be used in a
guiding or coaching manner .Followers go along with
recommendations because of his/her superior knowledge.
Usually gained from experience
5.Referent Power
Comes from personality characteristics that command identification,
respect and admirations so that others want to emulate the person.
Dependent on personal characteristics rather than title. Strong
identification with leader respect ,admiration, and loyalty. Possessed
by managers who are likable and whom subordinates wish to use as a
role model.
6.Information Power
The person has data or knowledge that you
need.
Evaluating the Bases of Power

People will respond in one of three ways:

1. Commitment The person is enthusiastic about the
request and carries the task out.
2. Compliance The person goes along with the request
grudgingly, putting in minimal effort.
3. Resistance The person is opposed to the request and
tries to avoid it.
Continuum of Responses to Power
Resistance Compliance Commitment

Bases of
Leader
Power Most likely employee response

Coercive

Reward

Legitimate

Expert

Referent
Dependency: Key to Power

Importance
The things you control must be important.
Scarcity
A resource must be perceived as scarce.
Nonsubstitutability
The resource cannot be substituted with something else.
Increasing Dependency

To increase the dependency of others on you,

You must control things viewed as important.
The resources must be viewed as scarce.
The resource must have few or no substitutes
(nonsubstitutability).
Influence Tactics

Rational persuasion
Inspirational appeals
Consultation
Ingratiation ( to attempt psychologically influence or control others)
Personal appeals
Exchange
Coalition tactics
Pressure
Legitimating tactics
Empowerment: Giving Power to Employees

The freedom and the ability of employees to make decisions and

commitments.
Managers disagree over definition of empowerment.
Empowerment as delegating decision making within a set of clear
boundaries
versus
Empowerment as a process of risk taking and personal growth
Conditions for True Empowerment

There must be a clear definition of the values and mission of

the company.
Company must help employees acquire the relevant skills.
Employees need to be supported in their decision making,
and not criticized when they try to do something
extraordinary.
Employees need to be recognized for their efforts.
Characteristics of Empowered People

Sense of self-determination
Employees are free to choose how to do their work; they are not
micromanaged.
Sense of meaning
Employees feel that their work is important to them; they care about what they
are doing.
Sense of competence
Employees are confident about their ability to do their work well; they know
they can perform.
Sense of impact
Employees believe they can have influence on their work unit; others listen to
their ideas.
The Abuse of Power:
Workplace Bullying

Bullying can happen across levels of the organization, or among

co-workers.
Recent research found that
40 percent of the respondents noted that they had experienced one or
more forms of bullying weekly in the past six months.
10 percent experienced bullying at a much greater level: five or more
incidents a week.
 The Abuse of Power:
Sexual Harassment

Sexual harassment is defined as:

Unwelcome behaviour of a sexual nature in
the workplace that negatively affects the work
environment or leads to adverse job-related
consequences for the employee.
Examples of Sexual Harassment

There is disagreement as to what specifically constitutes sexual

harassment.
Includes
Unwanted physical touching.
Recurring requests for dates when it is made clear the person isnt
interested.
Coercive threats that a person will lose her or his job if she or he
refuses a sexual proposition.