MANAGEMENT

Terms Definition
Organization Group of people work together, a club,
business, institute, hospital etc.
The act of organizing something so it runs
smoothly
The organization of the timetable
Organize To plan and prepare something in an
orderly way
To put things in order
Administratio The management of a company etc
n The government of a country
Administer To be in charge of and manage
To give out
Management As the process by which a co-operative
group is directed towards action
Use of people and other resources to
CONTD.

Terms Definition
Managers Have an assigned position within the
formal organization
Are expected to carry out specific function
duties and responsibilities
Leader Somebody who leads or who goes first, a
person in charge of a group
leadership Leadership is the process of influencing
people to accomplish goals
Administra A person who dispenses or administers
tor something.
Effectivenes Accomplishments of objectives
s
Efficiency Accomplishments of objectives with
CONCEPTS OF LEADER AND MANAGER
Leader Manager
Is visionary in Assess the driving
identifying need/ and restricting
change forces
Is a role model Identifies and
Is sensitive to implements
timing initiatives strategies
Is creative in Seek subordinates
identifying solutions input
Individual efforts Supports and
rewards
Understands future
 COMPARISON BET. LEADERSHIP AND
MANAGEMENT
Management Leadership
Management is Leadership is the
responsible for various ability to influence the
functions such as group in achieving the
planning, organizing, goals set by the
leading and management
controlling, which are Leadership influence
related to the total individual which will
organization contribute to the
Management is attainment of group
concerned with the goals
promotion of the Leadership used
welfare of the entire informal power to
organization without influence the group
COMPARISON BET.
ADMINISTRATION & MANAGEMENT
Administration Management
Determination of Plans and actions
Objectives Doing and executive
Thinking and function
determinative Takes decisions within
functions. the framework set by
Take major decisions the admin.
about over enterprise. Motivating and
Planning and controlling functions
organizing functions also involved.
involved. It uses organization for
It coordinate finance, the achievement of the
production and targets fixed by
distribution administration.
ADMINISTRATION VERSUS
MANAGEMENT
Administration Management
The process and agency The process and agency,
which is responsible for which directs and guides
the determination of aims the operations as an
for which an organization organization in the
and its management are realizing of established
to strive, which aims.
establishes the broad Higher functions of
policies under which they management includes
are to operate and which administration.
gives general oversight to Two types of management
be continuing are there: administrative
effectiveness of the total and operative
operation in reaching the management.
objectives sought.
FIG. MANAGEMENT AND
ADMINISTRATION
Administration
Hospital Board
Top Level and Executive
Management Director
Hospital Matron

Assistant Matron
Middle Nursing Supervisors
Management

Lower Ward Sisters

Management

Management
DEFINITION

Management etymology:
Managgaire (italian): means to handle
Manus (latin): handling
Mesnagement (french) and later menagement: management
during 17th and 18th
The term management is used at times to indicate the
process or the functions: planning, organizing,
staffing, directing and controlling.
Term management is also being used as a discipline,
i.e. a body of knowledge and practice
CONTD.
Management can be defined categorizing under
three orientations.
1. Productivity orientation
2. Human relation orientation
3. Process orientation
4. Decision-Making orientation
5. Systems approach
PRODUCTIVITY ORIENTATION
Management is the art of knowing what you want to do
.in the best and cheapest way. Frederick W. Taylor
(1914), profounder of this approach
Management is to conduct the affairs of a business,
moving towards its objectives through a continuous
improvement and optimization of resources via the
essential management functions. Henri Fayol (1917)
Critics: definition ignores the human side, which is
the most important element of management, and also
silent about the process of management.
HUMAN RELATION ORIENTATION
Management is the art of getting things done through
and with informally organized groups, and it is the art
of creating the environment in which people can
perform and individuals could cooperate towards
attaining group goals.
Critics: management thinkers put primary focus on
people and their feelings, not on productivity or
functions. The chief concerns are individuals, group
process, interpersonal relations, leadership, and
communication.
PROCESS ORIENTATION
Management is the process by which managers create,
direct, maintain and operate purposive organizations
through systematic coordinated cooperative human
efforts. Dalton McFarland (1976)
The distinct process consisting of planning, organizing,
actuating and controlling to determine and accomplish
the stated objectives by the use of human and other
resources. Terry & Franklin (1988)
Critics: this approach embraces human element: the
most important aspect of management, clarifies about
what a manager has to do and why and also clearly
indicates how it is done. The management thinkers
believe that management does not do; it gets others to
do.
DECISION-MAKING ORIENTATION
Management is simply the process of decision
making and control over the action of human
beings for the express purpose of attaining pre
determined goals.
The management quality is judged by the quality
of decision in diverse situation in the economic
front and amid risks and uncertainties.
Banerjee (1996)
CONTD.
Focuses on managerial decisions. It views
management as a series of decision making.
Concentrates on rational approach to decision
making.
Critics: this orientation is silent about the
process part, a it provides no clues at all as
what the manager needs to know and do.
Ernest Dale (1973)
SYSTEMS APPROACH
Management is defined as the process of
planning, organizing, directing and controlling to
accomplish the predetermined objectives
effectively through the coordinated use of human
and material resources.
Nursing Management is the process of working
through nursing and other supporting staff to
provide care to patients or clients as needed by
them.
CONTD.

Critics: this approach views an enterprise as

a system composed of a set of interrelated
but separate elements of subsystems
working towards achievement of a
common goal. The systems operations are
viewed as procuring inputs and processing the
inputs into outputs.
Physical facilities, human resources, money
are the part of a system; material, energy flow,
and information are the inputs; and
management processes these inputs into
outputs in the form of services, products, and
group-satisfaction, and others.
IS MANAGEMENT A SCIENCE?

UNIVERSALLY ACCEPTED PRINICIPLE

EXPERIMENTATION AND OBSERVATION

CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIP

TEST OF VALIDITY AND PREDICTION

 SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES CAN BE APPLIED
IN ALL SITUATIONS, AT ALL TIMES AND
ALL PLACES
SIMILARLY MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLE CAN
BE APLICABLE TO ALL TYPE OF
ORGANISATION
 SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES ARE BASED ON
RESEARCH, EXPERIMENTATION AND
LOGIC
MANAGEMENT PRINCILES HAVE BEEN
DEVELOPED THROUGH EXPERIMENTS AND
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES eg
REMUNERATION
 PRINCIPLES OF SCIENCE RELATES CAUSE
AND EFFECT BETWEEN DIFFERENT
VARIABLES
MANAGEMENT ESTABLISHES RELATION
BETWEEN MANAGERS AND EMPLOYEES
EMPLOYES PAID WELL => MORE EFFICIENT
WORK
 THEY STAND THE TEST OF TIME MEANS
IT CAN BE TESTED AT ANY TIME OR ANY
No. OF TIME
MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLE CAN BE TESTED
FOR THEIR VALIDITY WITH REGARDS TO
CLARITY OF THOUGHT AND DIRECTION
MANAGEMENT IS NOT AN EXACT SCIENCE
MANAGEMENT IS A
SOCIAL/BEHAVIOR/FLEXIBLE SCIENCE
BECAUSE
-IT DEALS WITH HUMAN BEINGS AND IT IS
VERY DIFFICULT TO PREDICT THEIR
BEHAVIOR ACCURATELY
THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES MAY PRODUCE
DIFFERENT RESULTS AT DIFFERENT
SITUATIONS AND TIM
IS MANAGEMENT AN ART ?
PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE

PERSONAL SKILL

CREATIVITY

PERFECTION THROUGH PRACTISE

PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE
EVERY ARTS REQUIRE PRACTICAL
KNOWLEDGE, -IT IS IMPORTANT TO KNOW
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF
THEORITICAL PRINCIPLES
SIMPLY OBTAINING A DEGREE IS NOT
ENOUGH, MANAGER SHOULD ALSO KNOW
HOW TO APPLY VARIOUS PRINCIPLES IN
REAL SITUATIONS IN HIS CAPACITY AS A
MANAGER
PERSONAL SKILLS
ALL THE THEORITICAL BASE MAY BE SAME
FOR EVERY ARTIST EACH ONE HAS HIS
OWN STYLE AND MODE OF
INTERPRATATION
EVERY MANAGER HAS HIS OWN WAY OF
MANAGING THINGS BASED ON HIS
KNOWLEDGE EXPERIENCE AND
PERSONALITY
CREATIVITY
EVERY ARTIST HAS AN ELEMENT OF
CREATIVITY THAT LETS HIM PRODUCE
SOMETHING THAT HAS NEVER EXISTED
BEFORE
MANAGEMENT IS ALSO CREATIVE IN
NATURE BECAUSE IT COMBINES THE
CONCEPT OF INTELLIGENCE AND
IMAGINATION
PRACTICE TO SEEK PERFECTION
EVERY ARTIST BECOMES MORE AND MORE
PROFICIENT THROUGH CONSTANT
PRACTICE
LEARNING IS THROUG ART OF TRIAL AND
ERROR INITIALLY BUT THE APPLICATION
OF MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES OVER THE
YEAR MAKES HIM PERFECT
 OLD SAYING THAT MANAGER ARE BORN
HAS BEEN REJECTED IN THE FAVOR OF
MANAGERS ARE MADE
SCIENCE AND ART NOT MUTUALLY
EXCLUSIVE BUT THEY ARE
COMPLEMENTARY TO EACH OTHER
MANAGEMENT IS THE OLDEST OF ART AND
YOUNGEST OF SCIENCE
MANAGEMENT AS SCIENCE IS THE ROOT
AND MANAGEMENT AS ART IS THE FRUIT
IS MANAGEMENT A PROFESSION ?
SPECIALIZED KNOWLEDGE

FORMAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING

SOCIAL OBLIGATIONS

CODE OF CONDUCT

REPRESENTATIVE ASSOCIATION
SPECIALIZED KNOWLEDGE
A PROFESSION MUST HAVE SYSTEMATIC
BODY OF KNOWLEDGE THAT CAN BE USED
FOR DEVELOPMENT OF PROFESSIONALS
A MANAGER MUST HAVE DEVOTION AND
INVOLVEMENT TO ACQUIRE EXPERTISE
FORMAL EDUCATION AND
TRAINING
AN INDIVIDUAL CAN ENTER A PROFESSION
ONLY AFTER ACQUIRING SPECIFIC
KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL (DEGREE IS
MANDATORY)
IN MANAGEMENT ALSO AN INDIVIDUAL
HAS TO ACQUIRE APPROPRIATE
KNOWLEDGE AND TRAINING (DEGREE IS
NOT MANDATORY)
SOCIAL OBLIGATIONS
PROFESSIONALS ARE MOTIVATED IN
DESIRE TO SERVE SOCIETY, SOCIAL
NORMS AND VALUE
A MANAGER IS RESPONSIBLE NOT ONLY
FOR HIS SUPERIORS BUT ALSO TO
SOCIETY
CODE OF CONDUCT
MEMBERS OF A PROFESSION HAS TO
ABIDE BY THE CODE OF CONDUCT WHICH
CONTAIN CERTAIN RULES AND
REGULATIONS
THE AIMA HAS PRESCRIBED A CODE OF
CONDUCT FOR MANAGERS BUT IT HAS NO
TAKE LEGAL ACTION
REPRESENTATION
FOR THE REGULATION OF PROFESSION
THE EXISTENCE OF REPRESENTATIVE
BODY IS A MUST EX:-INSTITUTE OF
CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS OF INDIA
BUT AIMA DOES NOT HAVE ANY
STATUATORY POWERS TO REGULATE THE
WORK OF MANAGERS
 MANAGEMENT IS NOT A FULL PLEDGED
PROFESSION
NO MINIMUM QUALIFICATIONS ARE HAVE
BEEN PRESCRIBED FOR MANAGERS * IT
DOES NOT RESTRICT THE ENTRY IN
MANAGERIAL JOBS *NO MANAGEMENT
ASSOCIATION HAS THE AUTHORITY TO
GRANT A CERTIFICATE OF PRACTICE
MANAGERS ARE RESPONSIBLE TO MANY
GROUPS SUCH AS SHRE HOLDERS
EMPLOYEES AND SOCIETY *MANAGERS
ARE KNOWN BY THEIR PERFORMANCE
AND NOT MERE DEGREES *THE ULTIMATE
GOAL OF BUISINESS IS TO MAXIMIZE THE
PRODUCT AND NOT SOCIAL WELFARE
CHARACTERISTICS OF MANAGEMENT
Art as well as science: Management is both an
art of possessing of managing skill by a person
and a science because of developing certain
principles or laws applicable in a place where a
group of activities are co-coordinated.
Management is an activity: It is a process of
activity relating to the effective utilization of
available resources.
 Management is a continuous process: The process of
management mainly consists of planning, organizing,
directing and controlling the resources. The resources
(men and money) of an organization should be used to
the best advantages of the organization to achieve the
objectives.
Management achieving pre-determined objectives: The
objectives of an organization are clearly laid down.
Every managerial activity results in the achievement
of objectives fixed well in advance.
 Organized Activities : Management is a group of
organized activities. It can be in the form of limited
company or a small club. All the organizations have an
objectives and these objectives is achieved through
systematic way of organized activities.
Management is a factor of production : The factors of
production includes land, labor, capital and
entrepreneurs. Land means a place where production
is carried on.
Labour refers to paid employees either skilled, unskilled,
semi-skilled, manager, supervisor and the like. Capital
refers to the working capital in the form of cash, raw
material and finished goods and fixed capital as in the
form of plant facilities and production facilities. These
land, labour and capital can not achieve the
organizations goals. It can be achieved only by an
organizations goals. It can be achieved only by an
entrepreneur in case of small organization and by
management in case of large organizations.
 Management as a system of activity : Individuals
are foundation of the management. Management
ensures the goal congruence between individuals
and organization objectives.
Management is a discipline: The boundaries of
management are not exact like other physical
science. It may be increased by continuous
discovery of more aspects of business enterprise.
 Management is a purposeful activity:
Management is concerned with objective
achievement through planning, organizing,
staffing, directing, controlling and decision
making.
Management is a distinct entity: Management is
a distinct from its functional activity. As function
is to do while management is to how to get
things done
 Management aims at maximizing profit: The available
resources are properly utilized to get desired results.
Decision making: Decision making arises because
there is availability courses of actions. The quality of
decision taken determines the organization
performance
Management is a profession: It posses the qualities of
a profession.
 Universal application: The same principles of
management are applicable in every type of industry
only the practice differs from one to another.
Management is getting things done: Manager gets
things done by others.
Management as a class or a team: Class means group
of people having homogeneous characteristics to
achieve common objectiv
 Management as a career: Now a days management is
developed as a career focused on specialization like
Finance, Marketing, Systems, Personal etc and they
are appointed in the key posts of the management.
Direction and control: Manager directs his
subordinates in the performance whenever necessary.
Direction & control deals with the activities of human
effort.
Dynamic: The management is not static in the ever
changing fast developing business world as new
techniques are developed and adopted by the
management
 Management is needed at all levels: The functions of
planning, organizing, directing, controlling and
decision making is performed by all the level of
organization.
Leadership quality: Leadership quality is developed in
the persons who are working in the top level
management.
TERMINOLOGY RELATED TO
PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT
Division of work: specialization for all kinds of works
to develop
Authority and responsibility: related authority flows
from responsibility
Discipline: implies obedience and respect of authority

Unity of command: One employ one boss

Unity of direction: one plan and one head for a group of

activities having one objectives
CONTD.

Subordination: individual interest to general interest,

interest of organization should be above the interest of
individual
Remuneration: a fair and equitable pay to employees

Centralization: highly centralized power structure

Scalar chain: all employees are lined with each others

in a hierarchy or superior subordinates relationship
CONTD.
Order: a place for everything and everything in its
proper place
Equity: sense of kindness and justice throughout all
levels of person
Stability: the tenure of personal job security to avoid
turnover of employee. A union is strength there should
be cohesiveness spirits
Initiative: an encourage subordinates initiate

Esprit de corps: a union is strength; there should be

cohesiveness and term spirit
PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT
14 principles of management as given by Henry Fayol
(Administrative management theory) are:
Division of Work: an employee assigned to only one type of
work to increase output which leads to specialization. The
work division should be done based on efficiency of
subordinates.
Authority and Responsibility: authority means right to
give order and power. Responsibility refers to the obligation
to perform the manner desired and directed by superior
authorities in any management process.
CONTD.
Discipline: the workers should be obedient and respectful
of the organization, and this is absolutely essential.
Unity of command: one employee should have only one
boss and receive orders for him/her using one plan
Subordination of Individual Interest to General Interest:
it means supremacy of organizational goals over interests of
individual or a group of individuals, including that of
manager.
CONTD.
Remuneration of Personnel: the price rendered or
remuneration should be fair and satisfactory to the
employees and employer including the managers justifying
the workload, job hazards, efficiency and quality of
performance.
Centralization: decisions are made from the top
(managers). Subordinates should be given enough authority
to do their job properly
Scalar chain (Hierarchy): the line of authority from top
management to lowest ranks represents the scalar chain.
Communications should follow this chain.
CONTD.
Order: It implies order of things and people.
Placing all required things and materials in
prescribed place i.e. in right place. Working place
should be clean, tidy and safe for employees.
Engagement of right people in the right place.
Equity: It is the combination of kindness and justice.
Employees expect equity from the management.
Employees should be treated fairly and justly, kindly
for devotion and loyalty from employees in return.
CONTD.

Stability of Tenure of Personnel: For maximum

productivity through efficient workers, a stable work force
with stable tenure is needed.
Initiative: passion, energy and initiative from the
employees of all levels through freedom to think out a plan
and execute it. It motivates people and increases
productivity.
Esprit de Corp: team or organizational spirit i.e. cohesion
among personnel is a great source of strength in the
organization. Managers should strive to promote team
spirit, unity and organizational communication.
FUNCTION OF MANAGEMENT
1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Leading / directing
4. Controlling
PLANNING
Planning is a basic managerial function. It is
setting goals and deciding how to best achieve
them in advance. Planning is predetermining
future and selecting appropriate goals and
actions to achieve them.
The process by which management set objectives,
assess the future, and develop course of action to
accomplish these objectives.
CONTD.
Planning requires decision making by all levels of
managers
Planning is also to decide in advance about what
to do, how to do, when to do and who is to do.
A good planning is also required for good
utilization of human and non human resources to
accomplish pre determined goals.
CONTD.
Planning is the core area of all the
functions of management. It is the
foundation upon which the other three
areas should be build.
The planning process is ongoing.

There are uncontrollable, external factors

that constantly affect an organization
both positively and negatively.
Depending on the circumstances, these
external factors may cause an
organization to adjust its course of action
CONTD.
During strategic planning, management analyzes
internal and external factors that do and may affect
organization, as well as the objectives and goals.
From there they determine the organizations
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats.
In order for management to do this effectively, planning
has to be realistic and comprehensive.
ORGANIZING
An important function of management.
Also important for performing staffing, directing
and controlling functions.
The process of arranging people and physical
resources to carry out plans and accomplish the
organizational goals.
Its ongoing.
ORGANIZING INVOLVES:
Defining tasks required for achieving goals. What
task to be done?
Grouping the activities in logical pattern

Determining manpower requirement

Establishing authority and responsibility for each

position. Who reports to whom?
Assigning the activities to specific position and
people
CONTD.
Coordinating their activities authority relations
Organizing efficiency and reducing the operation
cost through avoiding repetition and duplication
of activities.
LEADING
Leading A continuous process of setting
objectives and trying to achieve them through the
efforts of other people.
Leadership is an important function of
management.
Leadership is guiding and influencing people to
achieve goals willingly and enthusiastically in a
given situation.
CONTD.
Leading consists of : Leadership, Motivation and
Communication
Leadership is the ability to influence a group toward
achievement of goals.
Motivation is the acts of stimulating people to
contribute at some higher rate.
Communication consists of conveying information from
top to bottom, bottom to top and at horizontal and
lateral.
CONTROLLING
Controlling consists of actions and decision,
manager undertaken to ensure actual result.
It ensures the right thing is done in the right
manner and at the right time.
The steps of controlling:
Establishing standards
Measuring actual performance
Finding and analyzing deviations
Corrective action
PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT THAT WILL APPLY
IN
DIFFERENT SITUATIONS

Management by objectives
Learning from experience

Division of labor

Substitution of resources

Coordination of work activities

Functions determine structure

Delegation of authority

Management by exception
MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES
Deciding and saying what to be accomplished is
setting an objective ( a goal, a purpose, an end, a
target). There are many kinds of objective.
The management principle that underlies the
comparison of objectives with their achievement
in order to judge effectiveness is known as
Learning from Experience.
CONTD.
When there is a gap between objectives and
results (or achievements), management
analyzes why only the observed results were
achieved and why fell short of the set
objectives.
Some causes can be easily remedied, and
action is taken accordingly.
Others cannot be removed in short term and
are then called constraints.
Management learns from this process and uses
what it has learned in its further decisions for
achieving its objectives. This process is
sometimes called feedback.
DIVISION OF LABOR
When work is divided, or distributed, among members
of a group, and the work is directed and coordinated,
the group becomes a team.
In a team, and generally then there is specialization
and division of labor, which each category of staff
exercising its own skills towards achieving the
objectives, management consists in assigning a
balanced proportion of each kind of staff to the work to
be done.
CONTD.
The team approach is the way in which
management attempts to bring about balance
among the different members of the team and the
work they do.
COORDINATION OF ACTIVITIES OR
CONVERGENCE OF WORK
Convergence of work means that the activities of the
various people who do the work come together in the
achievement of objectives
The activities should be designed, assigned and
directed in such a way that they support each other in
moving towards a common goal.
Also implies that working relations-they ways in which
the members of a team interact with one another-
should contribute to the success of each activity, and
thus to general effectiveness.
SUBSTITUTE OF RESOURCES
Substitution means replacement
One particular type of substitution of resources is
labour substitution e.g. using trained ANM or
volunteers for tasks formerly undertaken by
professionals.
FUNCTIONS DETERMINE
STRUCTURE
When work is clearly defined, i.e. the function
and duties of individual members of the team are
clearly defined and known to all, the working
relations (the structure) follow.
DELEGATION OF AUTHORITY
Delegation takes place when someone with
authority lends the authority to another person,
conditionally or not, so as to enable that person
to take responsibility when the need arises.
Also ensure that the decision, once taken, is
made known to all concerned. This is
communication.
CONTD.
Decision should be communicated between those
who make decisions, those who implement them,
and the people affected by the decisions.
Shortest decision-path: deals with the issue:
who should make which decision? And often
when and where as well. Delegation of authority
is the answer to clarify this.
CONTD.
In such way, decisions are made as close as
possible in time and place to the object of the
decision and to those affected by it.
It saves time and work (e.g. in transmitting
information) and also ensures that decisions can
take full account of the circumstances which
make the decisions necessary and in which they
are put into effect.
MANAGEMENT BY EXCEPTION

Management of exception means two things:

First: be selective. Do not become overloaded with routine and
unnecessary information. Keep your mind available for critical
information, on which manager will be required to act.
Second: make big decisions first. To be overloaded with petty
decisions may result in more important ones being neglected or
what has been called postponing decisions until they become
unnecessary.
In short, management by exception means selectivity in
information and priority in decision.
IMPORTANCE OF MANAGEMENT
1. Optimum utilization of resources
2. Competitive strength
3. Cordial organizational relation
4. Motivation of employees
5. Introduction of new techniques
6. Effective management : society gets the
benefits
7. Expansion of business
CONTD.
8. Brings stability and prosperity
9. Develops team spirit
10. Ensures effective use of managers
11. Ensures smooth functioning (raises the
efficiency, productivity and profitability)
12. Reduces turnover and absenteeism
13. Creates sound organisation
EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT
THOUGHT
This evolution of management thought can be
studied in the following broad stages:
1. The Classical Theory of Management (Classical
Approach; 1900-1930): It includes the following
three streams of thought:
(i) Bureaucracy,
(ii) Scientific Management; and
(iii) Administrative Management
 CONTD.

2. The Neo-classical theory of Management (1930-1960): It

includes the following two streams:
(i) Human Relations Approach and
(ii) Behavioral Sciences Approach
3. The Modern Theory of Management (1960 onwards): It
includes the following three streams of thought:
(i) Quantitative Approach to
Management (Operations Research);
(ii) Systems Approach to Management
and
(iii) Contingency Approach to
Management.