INTRODUCTION

Is a complex process that involves many

participants (aktor dasar) with different roles,
interest, and The study of who gets what, why, and
what different it makes.
Public policy is whatever governments choose to
do or not to do it can be seen in the behavior of
government official and agencies; it defines the
relationship of government to its environment. A
policy is a purposive course of action taken to deal
with a problem concern.
Cont.
Public policy is developed by governmental official or
agencies
It is a goal-oriented or purpose action, not random or
chance behavior .
Policy is what government actually do, rather than
what they say they intend to do
Policy is based on law and is authoritative and legally
coercive
DEFINITION
Harold Lasswell (1950)
the science of policy had three distinct characteristics that
set it apart from other disciplines:
it would/should be:
- multi-disciplinary
- problem solving
- normative
Cont.
Multi-Disciplinary
policy sciences would break from the narrow study of
political institutions and structures and embrace the
work and findings of fields such as sociology,
economics, law and politics
Problem solving
policy science would adhere to a strict canon of
relevance, orienting itself towards the solution of real
world problems and not engaging in purely academic
and often sterile debates
Normative
policy science should not be cloaked in the guise of
scientific objectivity, but should recognize the
impossibility of separating goals and means, or values
and techniques, in the study of government actions
THE EVOLUTION OF THE POLICY
SCIENCES
While the emphasis on a multi-disciplinary approach
remains, there is now a large body of literature focused
on PP specifically. PP is now a discipline in and of itself
with its own set of concepts, concerns, and a
vocabulary and terminology all its own
1- Introduction
Defining Public Policy

2-The Function Of Public

Policy
a) Function Of Production
b) Function Of Excharge
c) Function Of Consumption

3-Conclusion
focuses on the nature of
public policy. It includes: - showing that the
function of the
- defining public policy in
the light of problem-
consumption of public
solving interests is negative, as
contrasted with
- arguing that the functions allocation, production
of public policy during the and exchangewhich are
process of solving objective positive functions so
differences include not only
allocation, but also
that it must be limited in
production, exchange, and the policy process
consumption of public
interests
DEFINATION OF PUBLIC POLICY

1-Woodrow Wilson
This definition is obviously
characterized by the dichotomy
between politics and administration,
2. Harold Lasswell and
Abraham Kaplan ( 1970)
Public policy as a projected program of
goals, values and practices
- Public policy also includes instruction,
decisions laws, regulations and other
symbolic systems that government
sends out.
3.Thomas R. Dye ( 1987)
Public policy is whatever government
choose to do or not to do
- Not only on government action but
also on government inaction, and
therefore, his definition shows the
obvious character of behavioralism
4. Robert Eyestone ( 1971 )
In a broad sense, public policy is the
relationship between governmental
organs and their environment
what is a governmental environment?
societal (general) environment,
the task (specific) environment
5. Devid Easton ( 1953 )
defines public policy as the authoritative
allocation of values for the whole
society.
the nature of policy is that some things
are owned by some people but not by
others.
1- Function Of Production
- Involve Government
Interaction
Eg : Government here to
intervene in providing public goods
to its people
- Government Participated in
production of public goods
For example National defence,
environment protection , public
infrastructure by implementing
Public Policy in other words, taxes
is actually a policy imposed by the
government in order to produce
public goods and services
2- Function Of Exchange
- Exchange can be in any form
such as social and economic
exchange
-Example , in China Western China
has greater advantage in natural
resources while eastern China has
talents ( skills )
-So, both regions can benefit each
other by mutual exchange of
natural resources and talents, and
come out with policy namely great
western development
3. Function Of Consumption

- Government which is the

supplier of public goods, and
has command over these goods,
has tendency to impose and CONCLUSION
extract rent and at the same time
government consume public
Without tranperence public
interest which originally mean to
policy, government tends to be
be share by the public
manipulative in carrying out its
function,
-In order to overcome this
situation, the government must
be transparent, democratics ,
etc . In other words transparent,
democratics , systematics are
actuaaly public policies
Characteristics of Public Policy
Public policies are those produced by government
officials and agencies
Purpose course of action followed by government in
dealing with some problem or matter of concern
Policy to purposive or goal-oriented action rather than
to random behavior or chance occurrences.
Do not just happen, designed to accomplish specific goal or produce
definite results
Cont..
Policies consist of courses or patents of action taken
over time by governmental officials rather than
their separate, discrete actions.
Public Policies emerge in respond to policy demand
or those claims for action or inaction on public
issue made by other actors (private citizens, group
representatives, legislator official and agencies)
Cont.
Policy involves what governments actually do, not
merely what they intend to do or what official say they
are going to do.
Public policy may either positive or negative
Public policy at least in its positive form, is base on law
and is authoritative
Categories of Public Policies
Substantive
What is government is going to do?
The policy actually provides goods and services
Procedural
How something is going to be done? Or Who is going to
take action?
This policy establish the procedures by which
government can act
 Cont.
Material Policy
Which provide material that is tangible and obvious benefit
to people.

Symbolic Policy
which simply appeal to peoples values without any
resources or actual effort behind them
TYPES OF PUBLIC POLICY
The policy response concept denotes what the agencies do
in responding to environmental and structural stimuli.
This concept is subdivided into policy statements, policy
actions, and policy results.

a policy statement is the intent of the government to do

something about some issue

a policy action is what an agency does to accomplish the

goals identified in the statement

a policy result is what happens in the environment (or, less

importantly, in the structure) following the agencys efforts to
achieve the goal identified in the statements
Policy Types- policy action
Distributive Policies
Involve the granting of some sort of benefit to particular
interest group or other well-defined, relatively small
group of beneficiaries.
Cont..
Policies that tend to distribute a good or benefit to
some segment of society, but whose cost are not deeply
felt by another group in society. These policies are
generally created with relatively little political conflict
Regulatory Policy
In general term, policies that are intended to govern
the conduct of business
There are two broad types of regulatory policies
Competitive regulatory policy
Protective regulatory policies
Cont.
Competitive regulatory policy
Is policy that limits the provision of goods or the
participation in the market to a select group or people or
organizations
Protective regulatory policy
Is policy that regulates some activity for the
protestation of the public.
Redistributive Policies
Is characterized by actions intended to manipulate the
allocation of wealth, property, personal or civil rights,
or some other valued item among social classes or
racial groups.
Is policy that gives a benefit to one group by seeming
to impose a discernible cost on another group. These
policies tend to be highly controversial.
STAGES IN POLICY CYLE
Policy making is a cyclical process. It begins in the agenda setting stage with
recognition and definition of a significant public problem and an organized call to
government action. In response, the legislative and bureaucratic machinery of
government may formulate, adopt, and implement a strategy for addressing the
problem. Analysis of policy effectiveness in turn often reveals shortcomings in
formulation or implementation or new problems to add to the policy agenda. (Activities
APPLIED PROBLEM STAGES IN POLICY CYCLE
SOLVING
1.Problem Recognition 1.Agenda-setting
2.Proposal of solution 2.Policy Formulation
3.Choice of Solution 3.Decision Making
4.Putting Solution into 4. Policy Implementation
Effect
5.Monitoring Results 5. Policy Evaluation
The evolution of public policy
Conclusion
TOPIC 2: UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC
POLICY
POLICY PROCESS AND POLICY ANALYSIS
Refer to 5 STAGES OF THE POLICY CYCLE AND
RELATIONSHIP TO APPLIED PROBLEM SOLVING
Policy system and changing environment
Approach of the Political System Model
Policy actors and institution
 Policy system and changing environment
Political system is a group of interrelated structures that allocate
values for a society
public policy as an output of the political system
By arranging settlements, demands are transformed into output
(policies)
The systems relies on concepts of information (especially feedback,
input, and output) and conceives of the process as being essentially
cyclical. Policy is originated, implemented, adjusted, re-
implemented, and readjusted
System Theory
The environment surrounds the political system. In this model,
"environment" means physical: natural resources, climate, topography;
demographic: population size, age, and distribution, and location;
political: ideology, culture, social structure, economy, and technology.
Forces enter the political system from the environment either as
demands or as support.
Demands are brought to it by persons or groups in response to real or
perceived environmental conditions, for government action. Support is
given wherever citizens obey laws, vote, pay taxes, etc., and conform to
public policies. (Input)
The political system (withinputs) is a group of interrelated structures
and processes that can authoritative allocate resources for a society.
The actors are the legislature, the executive, the administrative
agencies, the courts, interest groups, political parties, and citizens.
 Outputs are decisions and actions and public policy. The
political system is an identifiable system of institutions and
processes that transform inputs into outputs for the whole
society.
The elements with the system are interrelated and it can respond
to forces in the environment, and it seeks to preserve itself in
balance with the environment.
The system preserves itself by producing reasonably satisfactory
outputs (compromises are arranged, enacted and enforced). It
relies on deep rooted support for the system itself and its use, or
threat of use, of force.
System Theory (David Easton)
(Official actors)
INTRODUCTION
Policy actors/players in the policy process
TWO (2) main categories:-
1) Official actors
2) Unofficial actors

Official actors: involved in public policy

by virtue of their statutory or constitutional responsibilities
have the power to make and enforce policies
 Unofficial actors:
those who play a role in the policy process
without any explicit legal authority or duty to
participate (aside from the usual rights of
participants in a democracy
Example:
OFFICIAL POLICY MAKERS
Primary policy makers:
have direct constitutional authority to act

Supplementary policy makers:

Operate/function on the basis of authority granted by
others (primary policy makers)
Example: administrative agencies
 MALAYSIA:-
Powers as vested in Federal Constitution
Legislative and Executive
OFFICIAL ACTORS AND ROLES
Depends on the levels of government:-
Federal level -
State level
Local level

Different levels have different official actors

Examples
Functions of Parliament (Malaysia)
Parliament???
State Level : ?????
State Legislative : ?????
State Executive Officials EXCO
Example : State of Selangor
 Other critical function of legislative
Legislative???????
EXECUTIVE
The executive branch can be considered in two
parts:

Administrators, staff, and appointees (political)

Public bureaucracy.
 Public Bureaucracy administrative system
(government)
Administrative agencies
Different characteristics across countries
Size; hierarchic organisation, degree of autonomy from
other branches of government
Do they implement the decision/policies determined by
political branches of government?
Do politics blend with administration?
Do they involve in the policy formation?
 What government agencies do?

provide services that are uneconomical

for the private sector
public goods free-rider problem

Complaints tend to focus on speed,

efficiency, and effectiveness of public
service delivery
 Bureaucracy and the problem of accountability.
The key problem is the question of accountability.

Most public employees are appointed on merit

Early thinking focused on separation of politics and administration.

Modern thinking: Agency decisions are political and in the area of

administrative diplomacy.

Problem: no single, agreed-upon definition of the public interest.

Administrative diplomacy: ability to make decisions with minimal

interference.
 Questions/discussion on Official actors
Primary making decision
Supplementary implementing the decision
COURT
???????
(Unofficial actors)
UNOFFICIAL ACTORS
Joined official policy makers in the public policy
process
Example:
individual citizens; interest groups; political parties;
research organisations; communication media,
Why they are unofficial actors?
Because: how important or dominant they may be in
various situations they do not usually have legal
authority to make a binding policy decision
They provide information, exert pressure, seek to
persuade BUT they do not decide on the solution
Prerogative (right/privilege) of official policy makers to
decide!!!
 A) Individual citizens
Low political participation.
Voting.
Other forms of participation: campaigning, contacting,
Citizens can be mobilised to achieve goals anyone can be
persuaded to care about particular issues
Example:
felt threaten their lifestyle; government is unresponsive to public
needs
Joined an interest group or take political action
One group to ask government to do something about a problem &
another group to ask government not to do something about a
problem
Example:
B) Interest groups
Interest groups come together and create broader demands
social movement
Involve a coalition of groups with similar goals
Other people support movements without a formal group
affiliation
Categories of interest groups:
a) institutional interest groups members belong
to particular institution
b) membership group members are chosen to join
c) public interest group seek to create broad
benefits to entire society and not simply their
members
Example: university students member of
institutional interest group
Why????
Joined NGO
Why?????
 The power of interest groups differ.
May depend on:
Knowledge
Money
Information
Group size
Ideological commitment.
 Activities of interest groups.
Lobbying.
Campaign contributions.
Access (well-off).
Mass mobilization, protest, and litigation
(lawsuit).
Riots and protest marches
Examples
 C) Political Parties
Functions.
Voting cues (indications/clues).
Transmission of political preferences.
Creation of packages of policy ideas.
Organization of the legislative branch.
 D) Think-tank
Research organisations
Think Tanks by Area of Research
Defense and National Security Think Tanks
Domestic Economic Policy Think Tanks
Education Policy Think Tanks (Unranked)
ETC
 Malaysia :
i) MIER (http://www.mier.org.my/)
ii) Institute for Democracy and Economic Affairs
(IDEAS)( http://ideas.org.my)
 D) Communication Media
The news media are important actors in the
policy process.
Example????
Freedom of the press?
Medias primary function in policy process is
agenda-setting.
Media coverage correlates with institutional
attention.
 News media are not just passive actors.

Interest in trying to arouse media focus.

Time and space constraints require discretion.

Profit-driven businesses.

Competitive biases of news gathering: dramatic

and narrative qualities of the story.
 E) Social media
social media are forms of electronic
communication that produce content and
exchanged by network users.
Electronic communications are diverse in terms of
the forms and purposes.
 Table Forms and Platforms of Social Media
Source: Adapted from Auer (2011)

Forms of Social Media Illustrative Platforms

Blogs Blogspot, LiveJournal

Forum Yahoo! Answers, Epinions

Media sharing Flickr, YouTube, Digg, Reddit

Microblogs Twitter, foursquare

Social networks Facebook, Myspace, LinkedIn,

Tribe
Policy Network
The emphasis on networks is truly driven by
an increasing complexity characterizing the modern
state.
policy problems are considered far too
multifaceted to t the problem-solving structures
of traditional government
although borders between both different levels of
governmental units and different policy sectors are
administratively dened, societal problems are
characterized by their interdependent and cross-
scale nature
 Policy networks typically deal with policy
problems
Policy networks are mechanisms of political
resource mobilization in situations
 A decision makers -
requirement for solutions that can only be obtained
by the establishment of organizational collaboration
 The approach incorporates a rich variety of
concepts, including
advocacy coalitions (Sabatier & Jenkins-Smith,
1993),
implementation structures (Hjern & Porter, 1993),
iron triangles (Jordan & Schubert, 1992),
issue networks (Heclo, 1978),
policy communities (Jordan, 1990), and
sub governments (Rhodes, 1990).
 Article: The Performance of Policy Networks: The
Relation between Network Structure and Network
Performance by Annica Sandstrm and Lars Carlsson
The Policy Studies Journal, Vol. 36, No. 4, 2008

Policy networks are

Organized entities that consist of actors and their
relations engaged in processes of collective action for
joint problem solving.
Consequently, these structures are the relevant
analytical units to consider in the search for
explanations to the success and failure of
policymaking.
 Networking is frequently described as bargaining
games (Elmore, 1993; Rhodes
& Marsh, 1992; Thatcher 1998).
As such, collective action is basically the result of
a bargaining process in which actors adjust and
adapt to the actions taken by others.
The linkages between the actors serve as
communication channels and for the exchange
of information, expertise
 Proponents of the network approach:-
policy outcome is highly dependent on how these
bargaining processes proceed.
The inuence of the actors, as well as their
motives, expectations, and resources, is likely to
affect network performance.
However, it can also be argued that the outcome
depends on how the interactions among these
actors precede.
 Networks were seen as sub-elements of the
"policy system" - as a set of organizational and
inter-personal arrangements dealing with decision
problems related to a given policy (Friend et al.
1974: 26).
Such relations between policy actors included
not only linkages based on hierarchical authority
patterns but also informal relationships
interpersonal communication.
The communication structure among people
acting in policy systems was called a "decision
network".
 Policy networks should be conceived as specific
structural attunements in policy making.
Policy networks are new forms of political
governance which reflect a changed relationship
between state and society.
Their emergence is a result of
the dominance of organized actors in policy
making,
the fragmentation of the state,
the blurring of boundaries between the public and
the private
 Discussion
Why we should take policy networking approach in
policy making process?
How we manage policy networking for the benefits
of the state?
TYPES OF PUBLIC POLICY
The policy response concept denotes what the agencies do
in responding to environmental and structural stimuli.
This concept is subdivided into policy statements, policy
actions, and policy results.

a policy statement is the intent of the government to do

something about some issue

a policy action is what an agency does to accomplish the

goals identified in the statement

a policy result is what happens in the environment (or, less

importantly, in the structure) following the agencys efforts to
achieve the goal identified in the statements
 THANKS