POLS 373 Foundations of

Comparative Politics
Topic: Introduction to Comparative
Politics and Comparative Analysis

Lecture Date: April 3 and 5, 2007

Professor Timothy Lim
California State University, Los Angeles
 Studying Comparative Politics
An Introduction
Bowling for Columbine and Comparative Politics
Bowling for Columbine helps illustrate the
point that comparative politics, as a field of
study, has relevance in unexpected
places

Comparative politics provides us with

a ready array of conceptual and
analytical tools that we can use to
address and answer a wide range of
questions--from the mundane to
the sublime--about the world

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 Studying Comparative Politics
An Introduction
Comparative Politics is More Than Method
The comparative method is an integral part of comparative
politics, but comparative politics is not merely a method of
study, it is also a subject of study

As a subject of study, comparative politics may be said to

focus on the many different societies, types of institutions,
political systems, and countries that make up the world

?
Traditionally, the United States was
excluded, but, in principle, no good
reason for doing so

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 Studying Comparative Politics
An Introduction
Comparative Politics is More Than Method
Saying that comparative politics is both a subject of study and
a method of study, however, is still not enough: comparative
politics is more than just studying different countries
comparatively

As a field of study, comparative politics also focuses on the

politics of a given country, state or society, which raises one
more question

What is politics?
Discuss 4
 Studying Comparative Politics
An Introduction
What is Politics?
Heres a traditional or formal definition from the Merriam-
Webster dictionary

(1) Politics is the art or science of government; (2) it is the art

or science concerned with guiding or influencing
governmental policy; or (3) it is the art or science concerned
with winning and holding control over a government

In this (three-fold) definition, where is politics

located; that is, where does it occur? Who are the
political actors? What is the objective of politics?

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 Studying Comparative Politics
An Introduction
What is Politics?
An alternative, process-oriented, definition of politics

Politics is about more than what governments chose to do or

not do; it is about the uneven distribution of power in society,
how the struggle over power is conducted, and its impact on
the creation and distribution of resources, life chances and
well-being
~ Adrian Leftwich

How does this definition differ from the traditional

definition? Is the difference significant? How so?

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 Studying Comparative Politics
An Introduction
What is Significant about the Process-Oriented
Definition of Politics?
First, it clearly takes politics out the governmental arena and puts it
Process: a set or course of actions
into almost all domains of life and events that lead to a particular
outcome; process implies
These other domains include virtually all social and civil institutions and and
movement; open-ended
actors, such as process
suggests
churches, factories, corporations, trade unions, political parties, think that
tanks, outcomes are
ethnic
uncertain
groups and organizations, womens groups, organized crime, etc.

Second, it tells us that politics is an ongoing and open-ended

process involving multiple actors, multiple forces, multiple struggles,
etc.

Third, it tells us that politics--as a struggle for power over the

creation and distribution of resources, life chances and well-being--
cannot be confined to a single place or territory: politics, short,
transcends borders 7
 Studying Comparative Politics
An Introduction
Comparative Politics and a Process-Oriented
Definition of Politics
In our course, the politics in comparative politics will be
considered from processual perspective: in practice, this is
how most (albeit not all) comparativists define politics

This leads to an amended definition of comparative politics

Comparative politics, as a subject of study,
examines the interplay of domestic and external
forces on the politics of a given country, nation-
state or society.
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Back to the Comparative
Method

What is the
Comparative
Method?
9
The Basics of Comparing
The First Lesson

Thinking without comparison is

unthinkable. And, in the
absence of comparison, so
is all scientific thought and
scientific research.
This quote tells us that we cannot
escape the process of
comparing. Its part and parcel of
thinking in general, and its
integral to the scientific
enterprise. 10
 The Basics of Comparing
The First Lesson
Is Comparative Politics a Distinct Field?
If we all compare, if all science is based on
comparison, then what separates
comparative politics from other
fields of study?
In principle, comparative politics (CP)
is no different from other fields; in
practice, however, one thing that sets
CP apart from other fields is the
explicit and direct focus on the
comparative method--as opposed to
simply comparing (more on this later) 11
 The Basics of Comparing
Another Basic Question

Why Compare? What is/are the

Purpose(s) of Comparing?
In the book

3
general purposes of comparing are
discussed
1. Comparing to _______________
control
understand
2. Comparing to _______________
explain
3. Comparing to _______________
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 The Basics of Comparing
Why Compare: To Control

Consider these arguments or claims:

Ineffective and corrupt governments are the main obstacle to
economic growth

Authoritarian political systems are more conducive to high

levels of economic growth than democracies
Islamic culture is fundamentally incompatible with democracy
The relatively poor math and science skills of American
students are due to overcrowded and poorly-funded schools

How do we know or how can we know if any of these claims is

right, wrong, or something else?
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 The Basics of Comparing
Why Compare: To Control
Another Example: Possible causes of Americas
high rate of gun violence
Violent video games and entertainment
Anti-social rock music and/or Marilyn Manson
Too many guns
Too much poverty
Too much ethnic/racial diversity
History of violence in the United States

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 The Basics of Comparing
Why Compare: To Control

Comparing to Control and Comparative Checking

Through comparative checking, many possible
causes of gun violence can be eliminated or
problematized

Violent video games and entertainment: Plenty of violent

games and entertainment in Japan, Germany, Canada, and
so on
Anti-social rock music and/or Marilyn Manson: Germany is
home to Goth Rock, yet has low rate of gun violence
Too many guns: Several countries have very high rates of
gun ownership, but low rates of gun violence

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 The Basics of Comparing
Why Compare: To Control

(Continued) Through comparative checking, many

possible causes of gun violence can be eliminated or
problematized

Too much poverty: Plenty of poor countries that have

much less gun violence than US
Too much ethnic/racial diversity: Plenty of ethnically
diverse countries with low rates of gun violence
History of Violence: Many societies have far more
violent pasts than the U.S.

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 The Basics of Comparing:
Why Compare: To Understand and Explain
Click on links for
Comparing to Understand fuller definition

Focus on a specific place and time; idiographic (definition: of or

relating to the study or discovery of particular scientific facts and
processes, as distinct from general law): researchers interested in
understanding, use comparisons to better understand a single case

Comparing to Explain
Focus on theory or general principles; nomothetic (definition: of or
relating to the study or discovery of general scientific laws):
researchers interested in explanation, use comparisons to build
general explanations or theories that apply across a range of
specific cases
Be sure to remember the distinction between
comparing to control, to understand and to
explain 17

Comparing to Control
Basics of Basic strategy
Compara tive
checking
Comparing: A Logic or Researcher uses a
approach to range o f cases as a way
Summary of comparative
analysis
to test (verify or
falsify) a spec ific cla im,
the Three hypothes is, or theory.
Purposes
Comparing to Basic (1) Begin with a claim:
A high level of gun-
Example
Control ownership will lead to a
high level of gu n-related
homic ide.
(2) Test the claim: and/or ot her cases to
Comparing to Researc her exami nes a
ra nge of cou ntries in
Understand order to co ntrol for gun of theories on gun
ownership; if countries
wit h the highest rates of
Comparing to gun-ownership have low
rates of gu n-related
Explain homic ides (and vice
versa), the clai m is
falsified, and must be
rejected.
This table is on p.
23 of the textbook
General Purpose
Comparing to
Understand
Interpretation
Researcher is prim arily
inter ested in a sin gle
case and uses different
cases or gener al
theori es as a way to
learn more abo ut the
case he /she is studying .
(1) Begin with a case
(and issue): The high theory : Structural theory
level of homicides in
South Africa
(2) Use existing theories strengthen the theory :
bet ter understand case:
Researc her uses a ra nge
viole nce to better
understand w hy South
Africa is the most viole nt
cou ntry in the world.
Researc her also uses
other cases to see what
those cases ca n tell her
about South Africa.
Comparing to Explain
Analytica l
Induction
Researcher uses cases as
a way to bu ild a stronge r
theore tical explan atio n.
Cases are used in a
step-by-step manne r,
with each case
contrib utin g to the
development of a
general the ory.
(1) Begin with a gener al
of democratization
(2) Use various cases to
Researc her b egins b y
looki ng at the
democratizatio n proces s
in Mexico. This
exami natio n may lead
researc her to tweak or
revise eleme nts of theory;
he then looks at Taiwa n,
Pola nd, a nd the U krai ne.
Eac h case is used as a
stepping stone in
develo ping or
strengthening original
theory.
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 The Basics of Comparing:
More Questions
What is Comparable? What Can We Compare?

Can apples and oranges be compare? 19

 The Basics of Comparing
Some Questions
What is Comparable? What Can We
Compare?
If apples and oranges can
be compared, can Haiti
and the United also be
compared?
Is such a comparison
reasonable? Why or why not?
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 The Basics of Comparing
Some Questions
What is Comparable? What Can We
Compare?
Key point: The question--What is
comparable?-- does not have a fixed
answer
The answer always depends on the
purposes of the researcher and the
research question

21
 The Basics of Comparing
Some Questions

What is Comparable? Another

Answer
Scientifically speaking, we can compare
entities whose attributes are in part shared
(similar) and in part non-shared
Translation: Subjects of comparison must
have something (significant) in common, but
they cannot be exactly the same

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 The Basics of Comparing
What is Comparable?
In principle, then
The United States and Haiti can be compared because they have
something (significant) in common, but they are not exactly alike
Apples and oranges can be compared because they have something
(significant) common--theyre both fruits--but they are not exactly alike

But what about the following

Identical twins? The US in 1940 and the US in 2007?
Short answer is yes. Identical twins may be biologically identical,
but they cannot have the exact same experiences growing up; a
country changes over time, so the US in 1940 is different from the US
in 2007

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The Basics of Comparing
One Last Point on What is Comparable?

Comparisons need not be limited to

countries or societies:
Events (like a war or revolution) are
comparable
Political or social institutions are
comparable (e.g. the executive branch, the
military, economic agencies)
Policies are comparable (e.g. health care,
aid to the poor, official development
assistance)

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 The Basics of Comparing
Advantages of Comparing

Two General Advantages of Comparative

Analysis
1. Ability to deal with complex causality
2. Ability to get inside the black box of
explanation

25
 The Basics of Comparing
Advantages of Comparing

Complex causality--An Example:

To say that a culture of fear is

the reason for the high rate of
gun homicides in the United
States is simplistic
The statement fails, for
example, to recognize complex
causality
Moores argument, however,
can be refined to show a
greater appreciation for
complex causality, as indicated
in the figure

26
The Basics of Comparing
Advantages of Comparing
The Black Box of Explanation

Factor X Outcome Y

(e.g. cap italism ) (e.g., democracy )

Statistical or quantitative analysis does a very good job of

showing a correlation between X and Y, but typically does not
explain why this correlation exists in the first place. Getting
inside the black box of explanation may be possible with
statistical analysis, but qualitative analysis is usually much
better suited for this task.

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 The Basics of Comparing

The Logic of
Comparative Analysis
To do comparative
analysis properly, one
absolutely, positively must
have a grasp of the
general logic of
comparing

28
 The Basics of Comparing
The Logic of Comparative Analysis
In the dictionary, logic is defined in the
following ways:
1. Reasoning conducted or assessed according to strict
principles of validity; a particular system or codification of the
principles of proof and inference; the systematic use of symbolic
and mathematical techniques to determine the forms of valid
deductive argument

2. A system or set of principles underlying the arrangements of

elements in a computer or electronic device so as to perform a
specified task logical operations collectively

29
 The Basics of Comparing
The Logic of Comparative Analysis
In the context of comparative analysis, logic refers
to the basic principles upon which most (and most types of)
comparisons are based

These principles have to do with the justification or rationale

underlying all comparisons in the most general sense

For our purposes, the two logics we need to know are the
most ______________
similar systems and the most different
_______________ systems designs

30
Logic of Comparative Analysis
The Most Similar Systems Design

The MSS Design

The MSS design is based on comparing two
or more very similar social systems
More importantly, its based on matching up
and then comparing two more systems that
share a whole range of similarities, but also
__________
differ in at least a couple of important
respects

31
Logic of Comparative Analysis
The Most Similar Systems Design

The MSS Design

To Repeat: In the MSS design, differences
are key!

32
Logic of Comparative Analysis
The Most Similar Systems Design

The MSS Design

If differences are key, what needs to differ?

A: _____________________
Independent Variable

B: _____________________
Dependent Variable

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Logic of Comparative Analysis
Dependent and Independent Variables
Definitions Click on links for
fuller definition

Independent variables can be defined simply as

those which act on or affect something
Dependent variables are those that are being
affected or acted on

Put more simply: independent variables are the

cause of a certain outcome, while the dependent
variable is the outcome or effect itself

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Logic of Comparative Analysis
Dependent and Independent Variables
Consider the Following Example
American students do relatively poorly in math and
science because schools in the United States are
overcrowded and poorly funded.

The dependent variable is poor

___________________________
math and science scores

The independent variable(s) is/are

overcrowded and poorly funded schools

________________________________________________

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Logic of Comparative Analysis
Dependent and Independent Variables

Other Important Points about Variables

First, all social science arguments require an
independent and dependent variable

Second, in a social science argument, both variables

need to be defined as precisely as possible

Third, you need to be able to specify the relationship

between the independent and dependent variables

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Logic of Comparative Analysis
Most Similar Systems Design

MSS in BFC (Bowling for Columbine)

To better understand the basic logic of MSS, lets
consider the case of gun violence in the US and
Canada Yeah, I did
use an
Did Michael Moore use MSS
an MSS design? design*

What were his(unstated)

comparative assumptions?
See the next slide

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* But maybe I didnt know I did
Logic of Comparative Analysis
Most Similar Systems Design
MSS in BFC (Bowling for Columbine)
Key Assumptions
First, Moore assumed that the units or cases shared
an extremely wide range of similarities
Second, he assumed that, once he controlled for all
of the similarities, that there would be at least a few
significant differences between his two cases
Third, he assumed that, for the comparison to
make sense, the dependent variable between the
cases had to vary(called variance on the
dependent variable)

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Logic of Comparative Analysis
The Rubber Ducky
Example

The task when

comparing two very
similar systems is to
find the key
differences in a sea
of similarities.

Each plain rubber

ducky represents a
similarity between
two systems, A and
B.

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Logic of Comparative Analysis
The Rubber Ducky
Example

Once the similarities

are identified, the
researcher can
eliminate(or control
for) for these; this is
represented by the
x. This done, the
researcher can then
focus on finding the
key differences
between the two
systems

40
 Logic of Comparative Analysis
Most Similar Systems Design: A Bad Example
System 1: System 2: Similar or A Flawed MSS Design
S. Korea Taiwa n Different
Depend ent variabl e (y )
This (hypothetical) design is
Rate of nation al Very high Very high Similar
based on the argument that both
economic gro wth (i.e., no
Taiwan and Korea have a
variance )
developmental state
Ind epende nt varia ble (x)
(independent variable, x), and
Type of state Developmental Developmental Similar both cases experienced a very
high rate of economic growth
Other similarities
(dependent variable, y).
(examples )
Therefore, x is the cause of y
Cultural heritage Con fucian Con fucian Similar
Poli tical system Authoritarian Authoritarian Similar
But, how do we know that x is the
Importance of High High Similar
key independent variable, or even
ed ucat ion a significant independent
Workforc e skills High High Similar
variable? What about:
Relation ship with Strong, c lose Strong, c lose Similar
U.S. Culture-----> y or
Natural reso urce Limited Limited Similar
Skilled workforce -----> y?
endowment
Geographic locat ion NE Asia NE Asia Similar
Economic policy EOI/ISI EOI/ISI Similar KEY: in this MSS design, there
Timing of Post-194 5 Post-194 5 Similar are simply no differences
developme nt between the two cases. This aint
good!
This table is on p. 40 of the text 41
Logic of Comparative Analysis
Most Different Systems Design

Contrasting the MSS and the MDS designs

MSS: In a vast sea of similarities, find the

differences between two very similar
_____________
systems
MDS: In a vast sea of differences, find
_____________
similarities between very dissimilar
systems
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Logic of Comparative Analysis
Most Different Systems Design

Implications of MDS logic

Unlike the MSS design, you dont need, nor do you
want variance on the dependent variable
In other words, the dependent variable should be the
same for all the units in an MDS design, and so
should the independent variable
How does it make sense to compare two things
with a whole bunch of differences? Whats the
point?
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Logic of Comparative Analysis
Most Different Systems Design
MDS logic: An an MDS design, the researcher
considers differences largely irrelevant if, among the
most different systems there are significant
similarities. Consider a (hypothetical) comparison of
suicide rates in Soviet Russia, Sweden and the
Zuni

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Logic of Comparative Analysis
Most Different Systems Design
MDS Logic: Basic Explanation
Soviet Russia, Sweden, and the Zuni differed in almost
every
respect
different economic systems, different political systems, different climates,
different levels of economic wealth, different social structures, different
ethnic makeup, different cultures, etc.

(hypothetically) they had one significant thing in common,

namely, a high rate of suicide
To comparativists, the similar rate of suicide raises the question: despite all
their differences, is there a common element (independent variable) in
each case that could explain the high rate of suicide? The task in an MDS
design is to find the common independent variable.

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Logic of Comparative Analysis
Most Different Systems Design
In Theda Skocpols
research, she used
three most different
systems (Russia,
France, and China) to
find the cause of social
revolution
The logic is based on
finding key similarities
among all three units
Differences can be
eliminated
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