ACOUSTICS

Acoustics
comes from the Greek word akouein which
means to hear
the branch of Physics that studies sound,
namely mechanical waves in gases, liquids and
solids
The science of sound, including its production,
propagation and effects
The objective study of the physical behavior of
sound in an enclosed space
For room acoustics, it deals with those factors
that determine its character with respect to the
quality of sound being received.
Acoustician
Scientists that works in the field of Acoustics.

Acoustical Engineering
the application of acoustics in technology

Acoustical Engineer
the person who has the degree of acoustical
engineering and is practicing in that field
 Division of Acoustics
Aero acoustics
The study of aerodynamic sound, generated when a fluid
interacts with a solid surface or with another flow.
Architectural Acoustics
the study of how sound and building interact including
the behavior of sound in concert halls and auditoriums
but also in office buildings, factories and homes.
Bioacoustics
the study of the use of sound by animals such as
whales, dolphins and bats
Biomedical Acoustics
the study of the use of sound in medicine
 Division of Acoustics
Psychological Acoustics
Study of how people react to sound, hearing, perception
and localization
Physiological Acoustics
the study of the mechanical, electrical, and biochemical
function of hearing in the living organisms.
Physical Acoustics
the study of the detailed interaction of sound with
materials and fluids and includes for example
sonoluminiscenes and thermoacoustics
Speech Communication
the study of how speech is produced, the analysis of
the speech signals and the properties of speech
transmission, storage, recognition and enhancement
 Division of Acoustics
Structural acoustics and vibration
Study of how sound and mechanical structures interact
Transduction
the study of how sound is generated and measured by
loudspeakers, microphones, sonar projectors,
hydrophones, ultrasonic transducers and sensors
Ultrasonic
the study of high frequency sound, beyond the range of
human hearing
Musical Acoustics
the study of physics of musical instruments.
Underwater Acoustics
Study of the propagation of sound in oceans.
 Of the many sub-disciplines of acoustics, our focus is
more on Architectural Acoustics by Wallace Clement
Sabine who is regarded as the Father of Modern
Architectural Acoustics

Architectural Acoustics
Special branch of that science that deals with the
construction of enclosed areas so as to enhance the
hearing of wanted sounds: speech or music
Important Persons in Acoustics

Marcus Pollio = made some pertinent observations on

the subject and some astute guesses concerning
reverberation and interference.
Joseph Henry = first treated thoroughly the scientific
aspects of acoustics in 1856.
Wallace Sabine = developed more fully the subject
acoustics in 1900.
 Sound
a physical phenomenon that stimulates the
sense of hearing
an aural sensation caused by pressure
fluctuations
a pressure wave that propagates through air
with a speed of approximately 330 m/s.
an elemental that provides cognitive information
and affective information
A wave motion consisting of a series of
condensations and rarefactions in an elastic
medium produced by a vibrating body
 Three categories of Sounds
a) Music
b) Noise
c) Speech
Of the three categories, speech sound is considered the most
obvious conveyor of information whether cognitive or affective
although music delivers information but limited only.
Noise on the other hand is a sound signal that contains no
information at all making it unwanted or undesired and should be
minimized to avoid its interfering effect
 Wave Motion
Mechanical Wave
- some physical medium is being disturbed.

Electromagnetic Wave
-does not require a medium to operate

what we interpret as a wave

corresponds to the propagation of a disturbance through
a medium.
 Wave Motion
Mechanical Wave

energy is transferred over a distance, but matter is not.

All mechanical waves require

(1) some source of disturbance,
(2) a medium that can be disturbed, and
(3) some physical mechanism through which elements of
the medium can influence each other.
Wave Motion
Mechanical Wave
One way to demonstrate wave motion is
to flick one end of a long rope that is
under tension and has its opposite end
fixed, as shown in figure at the left.
In this manner, a single bump (called a
pulse) is formed and travels along the
rope with a definite speed.
The figure represents four consecutive
snapshots of the creation and
propagation of the traveling pulse. The
rope is the medium through which the
pulse travels. The pulse has a definite
height and a definite speed of
propagation along the medium (the
rope).
Wave Motion
Mechanical Wave
the properties of this particular medium
that determine the speed of the
disturbance are the tension in the rope and
its mass per unit length.
The shape of the pulse changes very little
as it travels along the rope.
A traveling wave or pulse that causes the
elements of the disturbed medium to move
perpendicular to the direction of propagation
is called a transverse wave.
A traveling wave or pulse that causes the
elements of the medium to move parallel to
the direction of propagation is called a
longitudinal wave.
Requirements to Produce Sound
Sound Waves
example of longitudinal waves. The disturbance in a
sound wave is a series of high-pressure and lowpressure
regions that travel through air.
Requirements to Produce Sound

1. Presence of vibrating body

2. Presence of transmitting medium
3. Presence of receiving medium
Requirements to Produce Sound

The sound wave is generated by

vibrational body or object such as guitar string
that vibrates or moves back and forth in a
material medium like air.
Its movement in forward direction
pushes the molecules of air before it, crowding
them together.
When it moves back again past its
original position and onto the other side, it
leaves behind a nearly empty space
Requirements to Produce Sound

Alternately thus the body causes in a

given space a crowding together of the air
molecules (a condensation or compression) and
a thinning out of the air molecules
(rarefraction). The condensation and
rarefraction make up a sound wave. Such a
wave is longitudinal or compressional because
the vibrational motion is forward and backward
along the direction that the wave is following.
Requirements to Produce Sound

This wave requires a material

medium because such a wave consists of a
disturbance of particles of a material
medium and therefore sound wave cannot
be generated nor travel through vacuum or
free space.
 AUDIBLE FREQUENCY RANGE

Infrasonic/Subsonic
frequencies below the audible range

Ultrasonic/Supersonic
frequencies above the audible range

Audible Range: 20 Hz 20kHz

AUDIBLE FREQUENCY RANGE
General Interpretations of Sound
1. Physical phenomenon consisting of wave
motion in a transmitting medium (objective)
2. Sensation due to outside simulation
(subjective)
Physical Properties of Sound
 Physical Properties of Sound

1. Amplitude magnitude of the vibration

(pressure, current, voltage)

2. Period time it takes to complete a

vibration/cycle

3. Frequency number of vibrations / cycle per

unit time
 Physical Properties of Sound

4. Wavelength physical length of a vibration

5. Velocity of Propagation
Vsound << VRF
(344 m/sec << 3 x 108 m/sec)
 Velocity of Sound
Solids

Where:
E = Youngs Modulus of elasticity, dynes/cm3
d = density of the medium, g/cm3
 Velocity of Sound
Liquids

Where:
E = Bulks Modulus of elasticity, dynes/cm3
d = density of the medium, g/cm3
 Velocity of Sound
Gases

Where:
k = specific heat ratio = hsp/hsv
hsp = specific heat at constant pressure
hsv = specific heat at constant volume
p = gas pressure, dynes/cm2
d = density, g/cm3
 Velocity of Sounds
Dry Air/Air (for TC 20 0C)
 Velocity of Sounds
Dry Air/Air (for TC 20 0C)

where:
TK = temperature in Kelvin
Velocity of Sound
 Velocity of Sounds
Notes
Sounds travel more slowly in gases than in
liquids, and more slowly in liquids than in
solids.
Sounds travels slower with an increased altitude
(elevation if you are on solid earth), primarily as
a result and humidity changes.
Velocity of Sounds in various media
Possibilities when a Propagated
Sound is Obstructed (3)
Possibilities when a Propagated
Sound is Obstructed (3)
 Possibilities when a Propagated
Sound is Obstructed (3)
Sound is Reflected
Echo
Becomes apparent to the listener only when the distance
from the source and the reflecting medium is great and
the difference between the original and reflected sound
is greater or equal to 1/17 of a second.
Flutter
Brought about by a series of reflections between two
parallel surfaces resulting to prolongation of sound
Creates listening fatigue
Interference
Reflection caused by two parallel surfaces, producing
standing waves
 Possibilities when a Propagated
Sound is Obstructed (3)
Sound is absorbed
Conversion of sound energy to heat energy

Onward transmission through obstruction

Physiological Characteristics of
Wave Motion (3)
Pitch
Physiological Characteristics of
Wave Motion (3)
Pitch
that attribute of auditory sensation in terms of
which sound may be ordered on a scale related
primarily to frequency.
Number of cycles a wave goes through in a
definite interval
The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch
Mel unit of pitch
1000 mels pitch of 1000Hz tone at 40dB
Octave pitch interval 2:1; frequency is twice the
given tone
Physiological Characteristics of
Wave Motion (3)
Tone
Timbre quality of sound

Pure Tone a sound composed of only one frequency

in which the sound pressure varies sinusoidally with
time.

Musical Sound composed of the fundamental

frequency and its harmonics
Physiological Characteristics of
Wave Motion (3)
Loudness
Fluctuation of air pressure created by sound waves
Observers auditory impression of the strength of a
sound and is associated with the rate at which
energy is transmitted to the ear.
Depends on the amplitude of the sound

Loudness Level measured by the sound level of a

standard pure tone or specified frequency which is
assessed by normal observers as being equally loud
 Unit of Loudness Level
Phon is the unit of loudness level when:
The standard pure tone is produced by a sensibly
plane sinusoidal progressive sound wave coming
from directly in front of the observer and having
the frequency of 1kHz
The sound pressure level in the free progressive
wave is expressed in dB above 2 x 10-5 N/m2
Unit of Loudness Level
Sone is the unit of loudness of an individual
listener.
For practical purposes, the scale is precisely
defined by its relation to the phon scale being
given by the formula:
Phon = 40 + 10 log2 sone
 Other Characteristics of Sound Waves
Tempo
the speed of sound (fast or slow tempos)

Rhythm
relates to a sonic time pattern, maybe simple ,
constant, complex or changing

Attack
the way the sound begins (can be hard, soft, crisp or
gradual)

Duration
refers to how long a sound blast
Decay
how fast a sound fades from certain loudness
 Classification of Sound
Noise
irregular vibration
no definite range of frequencies
annoying to the ear

Music
regular vibration
consists of fundamental frequencies and
harmonics whose combination is pleasing to
the ear
 Nature of Speech
Sound Pressure wave of speech contains
frequencies ranging from about 100 to 10,000 Hz

Speech power ranges from 10 to 1000uW

The maximum intelligibility for voice frequency is

located between 1000 and 3000 Hz

The maximum voice energy is located between 250

and 500 Hz
 Nature of Speech
Volume unit meter- the device used to measure speech volume
and designed to follow speech levels in relation to human
hearing with a standard signal level of +4 dBm on a 600 ohm
line

For typical single talker average power in dBm,

PdBm= VU reading 1.4 (dB)

For more than one speaker over the channel in dBm,

PdBm= VU reading 1.4 + 1 log N(dB)

N = number of speakers
0 VU = 0 dBm for a pure sine wave
0 VU = -1.4 dBm for complex signal like human speech (voice)
 Frequency Parameters
1. Harmonics
integer multiples of the fundamental frequencies.
Nth harmonics= N x fundamental frequency

2. Overtone
musical terms for harmonics
Nth overtone= (N+1) x fundamental freq.
3. Octave
frequency interval of 2 ( fH:fF =2:1)
Nth octave= 2^N x fundamental freq.
4. Decade
frequency interval of 10
Nth decade= 10^N x fundamental freq.
5. Interval
two tones sounded in succession
6. Major Triad
frequencies with ratios 3:4:5
 OCTAVES
What is an Octave?

Octave is an interval between any two

frequencies that have a tonal ratio of 2:1. It has a
pitch interval of 2:1. It is a tone whose frequency is
twice that of the given tone.

The number of octaves (n) is given by

Where f2 is the higher frequency and f1 is the lower

frequency
 Acoustic Terminologies
Super Sonic
faster than the speed of sound

Ultra sonic
higher than the hearing range

Infrasonic
lower than the hearing range
Apparent Loudness and Loudness Levels
Loudness Level Apparent Loudness
0 15 dB Very Faint
15 30 dB Faint
30 60 dB Moderate
60 80 dB Loud
80 130 dB Very Loud
130 dB Deafening
 Sound Levels
Sound Pressure (P) and
Sound Pressure Level (SPL)

Sound Pressure
The alternating component of the pressure at a
particular point in a sound field
Expressed in N/m2 or Pa
 Sound Levels
Sound Pressure Level
Equal to 20 times the logarithm to the base 10
of the ratio of the RMS sound pressure to the
reference sound pressure

Where:
SPL = 20 log (P/Po)
P = rms sound pressure
Po = reference sound pressure
Po = 2 x 10-5 N/m2 or Pa or 2 x 10-4 dynes/cm2 or
1 x 10^-12 W/m^2
Po = 0.0002 bar or 2.089 lb/ft2
Sound Pressure Levels
Source SPL (dB)
Faintness Audible Sound 0
Whisper 20
Quiet Residence 30
Soft Stereo in residence 40
Speech range 50-70
Cafeteria 80
Pneumatic Jack 90
Hammer
Loud Crowd Noise 100
Accelerating motor cycle 100
Rock Concert 120
Jet Engine (75 ft. away) 140
 Sound Pressure Levels
Sound Pressure Level (SPL) at any unit of
pressure in dB

SPL = 20log(P+N)
Where:
PN = rms sound pressure expressed in any of
pressure in dB
N = SPL constant corresponding to the unit
at which sound pressure is expressed
Sound Pressure Levels
 SPL Constants
SPL Constant
Unit of Sound Pressure Designation
(N)
Microbar bar 74
Pascal N/m2 94
lb/ft2 psf 127.6
mmHg mmHg 136.5
torr torr 136.5
lb/in2 psi 170.8
atm (technical) atm 193.8
atm (standard) atm 194.1
 Sound Levels
Sound Intensity (I) and
Sound Intensity Level (SIL)
Sound Intensity
Defined as the acoustic power per unit area
The basic units are W/m2 or W/cm2
The average rate of transmission of sound energy
through a cross-sectional area of 1 m2 at right angles
to a particular direction.
Sound Levels
Sound Levels
Sound Levels
 Sound Levels
For sound produced at ground level
 Sound Levels
Sound Intensity

I = 2 / d v

Where: d density of the medium (kg/m3)

v velocity of sound in medium (m/sec)
rms pressure in Pa (N/m2)
 Sound Levels
Sound Intensity in Air

I = 2 / 410

Where: dv 410 ray/sec

rms pressure in Pa (N/m2)
 Sound Levels
Sound Intensity Level

Where:
I = sound intensity,
Io = threshold intensity,
Io = 10-12 W/m2 or 10-16 W/cm2
 Sound Levels
Sound Power (W) and
Sound Power Level (PWL)

Sound Power (W)

The total energy radiated per unit time.
 Sound Levels
Sound Power Level (PWL)

Where:
W = sound power , W
Wo = reference sound power
Wo = 10-12 w
 Sound Levels
Relationship of SPL and PWL

(a) for a sound above ground level by an

isotropic source
SPL = PWL 20log r -11

(b) for a sound produced at ground level

SPL = PWL 20log r - 8
 Sound Levels
Total Sound Intensity
If several sources are there, the total sound
intensity is the algebraic sum of the individual sound
intensity of the sources represented by this formula:

IT = I1 + I2 + I3 ++ IN

If the sources are identical where I1=I2=I3=IN, the

total sound intensity becomes IT=nL

Where:
N= total number of identical sources
IT = Intensity of one of the sources
 Sound Levels
Total Sound Pressure (PT)
If the total sound pressure is required, do not add
individual sound pressure but remember the relation that
sound intensity is proportional to the square of sound
pressure resulting to:

If the sources are identical where P1=P2=P3=PN, the total

sound intensity becomes
 Room Acoustics
Room Acoustics
Concerned with the behavior of sound within an
enclosed space with a view to obtaining the
optimum acoustic effect on the occupants
Room Acoustics
 Room Acoustics
Requirements
Adequate amount of sound must reach all parts
of the room.
Even distribution of sound
Noise must be reduced to an acceptable level.
Optimum Reverberation time, RT60
 Reverberation
Reverberation
Tendency for the sound to persist over a definite
period of time after it has been produced
originally and stopped at the source.
 Reverberation
Reverberation
 Reverberation
Reverberation Time, RT60
Time taken for the density of sound energy in
the room to drop to 1 millionth (60dB) below of
its initial value
Optimum Periods of
Reverberation
Factors Affecting Reverberation
Time

Volume of the room

Type of materials
Surface area of
material
 TYPES OF ROOM
LIVE ROOM
- Little absorption (RT60 > 1 sec)
DEAD ROOM
- Large absorption (RT60 < 1 sec)
ANECHOIC ROOM
- 100% absorption (free field conditions)
 Room Acoustics
Coefficient of absorption,
Ratio of incident sound and absorbed sound
Efficiency of sound absorption
 Room Acoustics
Coefficient of Absorption
 Room Acoustics
Coefficient of Absorption
 Reverberation Time
Equations
a. Sabines Equation
For actual reverberation time with average
absorption less than or equal to 0.2; (absorption
coefficient, 0.2)

Where;
V = room volume,
m3
A = total absorption
units
 Reverberation Time
Equations

Where;
V = room volume, ft3
A = total absorption units
 Reverberation Time
Equations
b. Norris Eyring Equation
For actual reverberation time with average
absorption greater than 0.2; ( 0.2 )

Where;
V = room volume, m3
= average coefficient
of reflecting surfaces
 Reverberation Time
Equations
c. Stephens and Bate Equation
For ideal reverberation time computation

Where:
r = 4 for speech
r = 5 for orchestra
r = 6 for choir
Optimum Volume / person
Concert Halls 7.1
Italian type opera houses 4.2 5.1
Churches 7.1 9.9
Cinemas 3.1
Rooms for Speeches 2.8