Modern Physics - Chapter 27

Magnetism
October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 1

Magnetism
In this chapter we will start our study of magnetism.
We will describe magnetic fields and magnetic forces and
their effects on charged particles and currents.
The Sun has massive magnetic fields, as do other stars.
The Earth also has a magnetic field.
In the region of Magnesia, ancient Greeks found naturally
occurring minerals that attracted and repelled each other and
attracted various material such as iron.
The minerals are various forms of iron oxide and are called
permanent magnets.

Permanent Magnets
Examples of modern permanent magnets include
refrigerator magnets and magnetic door latches.
They are all made of compounds of iron, nickel, or cobalt.
If you touch an iron needle to a piece of magnetic lodestone,
the iron needle will be magnetized.
If you then float this iron needle in water, the needle will
point toward the north pole of the Earth (approximately!).
We call the end of the magnet that points north the
north magnetic pole of the magnet and the other end the
south magnetic pole of the magnet.

Permanent Magnets - Poles
Magnets exert forces on Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies. Permission required for reproduction or display.
one another.
If we bring together two
permanent magnets such
that the two north poles
are together or two south
poles are together, the
magnets will repel each
other.
If we bring together a
north pole and a south
pole, the magnets will
attract each other.
Concept Check
If we break a permanent magnet in half, what do we get?
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies. Permission required for reproduction or display.
A. two new magnets, each with a north and a south pole

B. two new magnets, one north magnet and one south magnet

Broken Permanent Magnet
If we break a permanent magnet
in half, we do not get a separate
north pole and south pole.
When we break a bar magnet in
half, we always get two new
magnets, each with its own north
and south pole.
Unlike electric charge that exists
as positive (proton) and negative (electron) separately, there
are no separate magnetic monopoles (an isolated north pole
or an isolated south pole).
Scientists have carried out extensive searches for magnetic
monopoles; all results are negative.
Magnetism is not caused by magnetic particles! Magnetism
is caused by electric currents.
Magnetic Field Lines
Permanent magnets interact with each other at a distance,
without touching.
In analogy with the electric field, we define a magnetic
field to describe the magnetic force.
As we did for the electric field, we represent the magnetic
field using magnetic field lines.
As with electric field lines, closer spacing of magnetic field
lines indicates a higher field strength.
The field is tangent to the field lines.
Here is an example of the magnetic field lines calculated for
a permanent bar magnet, along with a photo of an actual bar
magnet with iron filings.

For the electric field, the electric force points in the same
direction as the electric field, and the electric force was
defined in terms of a positive test particle.
However, because there is no magnetic monopole, we must
employ other means to define the magnetic force.
We can define the direction of the magnetic field in terms of
the direction a compass needle would point.
A compass needle, with a north pole and a south pole, will
orient itself in equilibrium such that its north pole points in
the direction of the magnetic field.
Thus the direction of the field can be measured at any point
by moving a compass needle around in a magnetic field and
noting the direction that the compass needle points.

The Earths Magnetic Field
The Earth itself is a magnet.
It has a magnetic field sort of like (but not exactly like)
a bar magnet.
The poles of the Earths magnetic field are not aligned with
the Earths geographic poles defined as the endpoints of the
axis of the Earths rotation.
The Earths magnetic field is not a simple dipole field
because it is distorted by the solar wind, which is made up
of protons from the Sun moving at 400 km/s.
The Earths magnetic field is important to us because it
protects us from cosmic rays.
Cosmic rays are diverted to the poles and sometimes
captured in the Van Allen radiation belts.
The Earths Magnetic Field

Earths Magnetic Poles
The north and south magnetic poles are not located exactly
at the north and south geographic poles.
The magnetic south pole is located in Canada.
The magnetic north pole is located on the edge of Antarctica.
The magnetic poles move around, at a rate of 40 km per
year.
By 2050, the magnetic south pole will be located in Siberia.
Since the Earths magnetic field was first measured in 1840,
its magnitude has been decreasing 7% per century.
The Earths magnetic field will disappear in a few thousand years.
Geological evidence show that the Earths magnetic field
has reversed 170 times in the last 100 million years.
The last reversal took place 770,000 years ago.
Superposition of Magnetic Fields
If several sources of magnetic field are present, the
magnetic field at any point in space is given by the
superposition of the magnetic fields from all sources.
This superposition of fields follows from the principle of
superposition of forces.
The superposition principle can be stated mathematically as:
This is analogous to the superposition of electric fields.

Magnetic Force
We have stated that a magnetic field has a direction, along
the magnetic field lines.
The magnitude of a magnetic field is determined by its
effect on a moving charged particle.
We start with a constant magnetic field and study its effect
on a single charge.
Remember that the force exerted by an electric field on a
charge is given by:
A magnetic field does not exert

a force on a charge at rest, but
only on a moving charge.

Magnetic Force
The magnetic force exerted by a magnetic field on a moving
charged particle is given by:
The direction of the

magnetic force is
perpendicular to both
the velocity of moving
positively charged
particle and the
magnetic field, and is
given by the right hand
rule 1.
The force is in the
opposite direction for a negatively charged particle.
Magnetic Force
The magnitude of the the magnetic force on a moving
charged particle is:
where is the angle between the velocity of the charged

particle and the magnetic field.
No magnetic force acts on a charged particle moving
parallel or anti-parallel to the magnetic field.
The maximum magnetic force occurs when the charge
particle is moving perpendicular to the magnetic field:

Magnetic Force and Work
The magnetic force is perpendicular to the velocity of a
moving charged particle:
The magnetic force can change the direction of the velocity

of the moving charged particle but not its magnitude.
The kinetic energy remains the same.
The magnetic force does no work on the moving charged
particle.
On the other hand, the electric field can easily be used to do
work on a particle.

Concept Check
A bar magnet is hung from a string through its center as
shown
A charged rod is slowly brought up
slowly into the position shown and
held there.
In what direction will the magnet
tend to rotate?
A) left side down

B) right side down
C) The magnet wont move.
W. Bauer and G.D. Westfall

Concept Check
The figure shows a positively charged particle with velocity
v moving in the negative x-direction through a uniform
magnetic field B that points in the negative y-direction.
What is the direction of the magnetic force F on the
particle?
A) negative z-direction
B) positive y-direction
C) positive z-direction
D) negative x-direction
W. Bauer and G.D. Westfall

Units of Magnetic Field Strength
The magnetic field strength has received its own named
unit, the tesla (T), named in honor of the physicist and
inventor Nikola Tesla (1856-1943):
A tesla is a rather large amount of magnetic field strength.

Sometimes you will find magnetic field strength state in
units of gauss (G), (not an official SI unit):
1 G = 10-4 T
10 kG = 1 T

Earths Magnetic Field Strength
The strength of the Earths magnetic field at the
surface of Earth varies between 0.25 G and 0.65 G, typically
quoted as 0.5 G.

Concept Check
Cosmic rays (atomic nuclei stripped bare of their electrons)
would continuously bombard Earths surface if most of
them were not deflected by Earths magnetic field.
Given that Earth is, to an excellent approximation, a
magnetic dipole, the intensity of cosmic rays bombarding its
surface is greatest at the:
A) poles.
B) equator.
C) somewhere else
(i.e., mid-latitudes).
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies.

Permission required for reproduction or display.

Charged Particles and Earths Field
Moving charged particles from the Sun and other sources
interact with the Earths magnetic field.
The magnetic force curls up the trajectory of the charged
particles so that they spiral around the field lines.
Two bands of charged particles captured from the solar
wind circle the Earth:
Van Allen radiation belts.
As charged particles spiral down the field lines near the
poles, they interact with the Earths atmosphere and produce
the aurora borealis (northern lights) and aurora australis
(southern lights).

Aurora Australis
The following video is from NASAs Earth Observatory.
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=6226
These are images from the IMAGE Spacecraft.
It shows the Aurora Australis in September 11, 2005, four
days after large solar flares observed on Sun.
The IMAGE observations are overlaid on NASAs Blue
Marble image, so this is a composite movie, not an actual
image.

Van Allen Radiation Belts

Cathode Ray Tube
PROBLEM:
Consider a cathode ray tube.
In this tube, a potential difference of V = 111 V accelerates
electrons horizontally in an electron gun.
Positively charged anodes focus the electrons into a beam.
Horizontal and vertical deflecting plates use potential
differences to steer the beam.
In the main part of the cathode ray tube, there is a magnetic
field with magnitude B = 3.4010-4 T.


Cathode Ray Tube
The direction of the magnetic field is upward and
perpendicular to the initial velocity of the electrons.
What is the magnitude of the acceleration of the electrons?
SOLUTION:
Think
The electrons gain kinetic energy in the electron gun of the
cathode ray tube.
The gain in kinetic energy of each electron is equal to the
charge of the electron times the potential difference.
The electrons speed can be found from its kinetic energy.
The magnetic force on an electron can be found from the
electron charge, the electron velocity, and the strength of the
magnetic field, and is equal to the mass of the electron times
its acceleration.
Cathode Ray Tube
Sketch

Research
The change in kinetic energy plus the change in potential
energy is equal to zero:
Taking the charge of an electron q = e:

Cathode Ray Tube
We can solve for the speed of the electron:
The magnitude of magnetic force is:
The magnetic force is the only force:
Simplify
Substituting and rearranging gives us:

Cathode Ray Tube
Calculate
Putting in our numerical values we get:
Round
We round our result to three significant figures:
Double-check
This acceleration is huge compared with the acceleration of
gravity on the surface of the Earth.
We need to do some double-checks.

Cathode Ray Tube
Lets calculate the speed of the electrons:
6250 km/s may seems really fast but it is only 2% of the

speed of light:
The magnetic force on the electrons is:
The force is really small but the acceleration is really large

because the electron is really light.

Concept Check
In what direction will the electron be deflected in the figure
below from the cathode ray tube example?
A. Into the page

B. Out of the page
C. Up
D. Down
E. No deflection
Particle Orbits in a Constant Magnetic Field
Tie a string to a rock and twirl it at constant speed in a circle
over your head.
The tension of the string provides the centripetal force that
keeps the rock moving in a circle.
The tension on the string always points to the center of the
circle and creates a centripetal acceleration.
A similar situation occurs when a particle with charge q and
mass m moves with velocity v perpendicular to a uniform
magnetic field B.
The particle will move in a circle with a constant speed v
and the magnetic force F = qvB will keep the particle
moving in a circle.

Particle Orbits in a Constant Magnetic Field
The force required to keep a particle moving in a
circle with radius r is:
This force is provided by the magnetic force on a moving

charged particle:
The radius of the circular motion is:
A common way to express this relationship in terms of the

momentum of the particle is:

Concept Check
An electron beam is initially accelerated by an electric field.
Then the electrons move in a circle perpendicular to the
constant magnetic field created by a pair of Helmholtz
coils.
In what direction is the
F magnetic field?
A. Into the page
v B. Out of the page
C. To the left
D. To the right

Velocity Selector
Protons are accelerated from rest through an electric
potential difference of V = 14.0 kV.
The protons enter a velocity selector,
consisting of a parallel plate Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies.
capacitor in a constant magnetic field, Permission required for reproduction or display.
directed perpendicularly into the plane of the page.

The electric field between the plates of the parallel plate has
a magnitude of 4.30105 V/m, directed in the plane of the
page and downward.
This arrangement of perpendicular electric and magnetic
fields is referred to as crossed fields.
PROBLEM:
What magnetic field is required for the protons to move
through the velocity selector without being deflected?
Velocity Selector
SOLUTION:
Think
For a proton to move on a straight line without deflection
requires that the net force on the proton be zero.
Since the proton has a certain velocity and since the
magnetic force depends on the velocity, it is clear that this
condition of zero net force cannot be realized for arbitrary
speeds of the protonhence the name velocity selector.
Sketch


Velocity Selector
Research
The change in kinetic energy of the protons plus the change
in electric potential energy is equal to zero:
1 2
K = -U = mv = eDV
2
The speed of the proton after acceleration is:
When the protons enter the velocity selector, the direction

of the electric force is in the direction of the electric field,
which is downward (negative y-direction).
The magnitude of the electric force is:

Velocity Selector
Right-hand rule 1 gives the direction of the magnetic force.
The direction of the magnetic force on the protons is
upward.
The magnitude of the magnetic force is given by:
Simplify
Setting the electric force equal to the magnetic force gives:
Solving for the magnetic field gives us:

Velocity Selector
Calculate
Putting in our numerical values we get:
Round
We round our result to three significant figures:
Double-check
Lets check that the magnitude of the electric force and
magnetic force are the same.
The electric force is:

Velocity Selector
For the magnetic force we need the speed of the protons:
The magnetic force is:
Which agrees with the electric force, so we are satisfied.

Concept Check
An electron (with charge e and mass me) moving in the positive x-
direction enters a velocity selector consisting of crossed electric and
magnetic fields:
E is directed in the positive y-direction
B is directed in the positive z-direction.
For a velocity v (in the positive x-direction), the net force on the
electron is zero, and the electron moves straight through the velocity
selector.
With what velocity will a proton (with charge +e and mass mp = 1836
me) move straight through the velocity selector?
A. v
B. v
C. v/1836
D. v/1836
Force on a Current-Carrying Wire
Consider a long, straight wire carrying a current i in a
constant magnetic field B.

The magnetic field will exert a force on the moving charges
in the wire.
The charge q flowing in the wire in a given time t in a
length L of wire is given by:
Here vd is the drift velocity of the electrons.

The direction of the force is given by right hand rule 1.

The magnitude of the magnetic force is then:
is the angle between the current and the magnetic field.

The direction of the force is perpendicular to both the
current and the magnetic field and is given by the right
hand rule.
This equation can be expressed as a vector cross product:
iL represents the current in a length L of wire.

Concept Check
The figure shows a wire on the x-axis with a current i
flowing in the negative x-direction.
The wire is in a uniform magnetic field.
The magnetic force FB acting on the wire is in the positive
z-direction.
The magnetic field is oriented so that
the force is maximum.
In what direction is the magnetic field?
A) positive y
B) negative x
C) negative y
D) positive z
E) negative z
Force on the Voice Coil of a Speaker
A loudspeaker or earphone produces sound by exerting a
magnetic force on a voice coil in a magnetic field.

The movable voice coil is connected to a speaker cone that
actually produces the sound.
The magnetic field is produced by the two permanent
magnets.
The magnitude of the magnetic field is
B = 1.50 T.
The voice coil is composed of
n = 100 turns of wire carrying a
current i = 1.00 mA.
The diameter of the voice coil is

d = 2.50 cm.

PROBLEM:
What is the magnetic force exerted by
the magnetic field on the voice coil?
SOLUTION:
The magnitude of the magnetic field is:
The angle between the coil and the magnetic field is 90.
The length of wire is the circumference of the circle times
the the number of turns:
The force is then:

Putting in our numerical values:
The right hand rule tells us that the

force is into the screen.
If the current is reversed, the force will be out of the screen.
If the current is proportional to the amplitude of a sound
wave, the sound waves are reproduced by the motion of the
speaker cone.

Torque on a Current-Carrying Loop
Electric motors rely on the magnetic force exerted on a
current carrying wire.
This force is used to create a torque that turns a shaft.
A primitive electric motor is depicted below consisting of a
square loop of side a carrying current i in a constant
magnetic field B.

The magnitude of the magnetic force on the vertical
sections of the loop is FB = iaB.
The forces on the two vertical sections are in the opposite
direction and cause a torque that tends to rotate the loop
around the dashed line.

As the loop rotates, the magnetic
forces on the vertical sections do
not change.
However, the torque changes.
We define as the angle between
the unit normal vector of the loop
and the magnetic field.
The torque on the loop is:
We can see that when = 0 there is no torque.

How can this ever work as an electric motor?

The reason the loop continues
to rotate in an electric motor
is that it is connected
to a commutator, which
causes the current to change
directions as the coil rotates.
If this single loop is replaced
with a coil, the torque is:
This result was derived for a square loop with area A, but it
applies to loops of any shape.

Concept Check
The top view of a current-carrying loop in a constant
magnetic field is shown in the figure.
The torque on the loop will cause it to rotate
A. clockwise.
B. counterclockwise.
C. not at all.

Magnetic Dipole Moment
We can describe this coil with one parameter consisting of
information about the coil only, combined with information
about the magnetic field.
We define the magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment of
a current-carrying coil as:
We can express the torque on the coil in terms of the

magnetic dipole moment of the coil:
A magnetic dipole has a potential energy in an external

magnetic field.
We can determine the potential energy as a function of the
angle of the magnetic dipole with respect to the field.
The work done by a torque is:
Using the work-energy theorem and taking 0 = 90, we can

write the magnetic potential energy as:
The potential energy is a minimum (negative) when the

dipole moment is parallel to the magnetic field.
The potential energy is a maximum (positive) when the
dipole is anti-parallel to the magnetic field.

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Hall Effect
Consider a conductor carrying a
current i perpendicular to a
magnetic field B.
The electrons in the conductor
will be moving with velocity vd in
a direction opposite to the
current. Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies. Permission required for reproduction or display.
The moving electrons experience a force perpendicular to

their velocity, making the electrons move toward one edge
of the conductor.
After some time, many electrons have moved to one edge
of the conductor, creating a net negative charge on the
opposite edge of the conductor.

Hall Effect
This creates an electric field E,
which exerts a force on the
electrons in the opposite
direction.
When the two forces balance
each other, equilibrium is
reached and the net number of
electrons on the edges no longer
changes. Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies. Permission required for reproduction or display.
This is called the Hall effect.

The resulting potential difference between the edges of the
conductor is termed the Hall potential difference and is
given by VH = Ed where d is the width of the conductor
and E is the magnitude of the created electric field.
Hall Effect
The Hall effect can be used to measure magnetic fields by
applying a known current in the conductor and measuring
the resulting electric field across the conductor.
To obtain this result quantitatively, we start by expressing
the equal magnitudes of the magnetic and electric forces on
an electron:
Earlier we found that the drift speed of an electron in a

conductor can be related to the current density in the strip:
A is the cross sectional area of the conductor given by

A = dh where h is the thickness of the conductor, and n is
the number of electrons per unit volume in the conductor.
Hall Effect
Solving for the drift velocity gives us:
Which allows us to write an expression for the magnetic

field:
in terms of the measured Hall potential difference VH and

knowing the height h and density of charge carriers n of the
conductor.

Hall Probe
We put a Hall probe into a constant magnetic field.
The Hall probe is constructed of copper and has a width of
2.00 mm.
We measure a potential difference of 0.250 V across the
Hall probe when we run a current 1.25 A through the probe.
PROBLEM:
What is the magnitude of the magnetic field?
SOLUTION:
The magnetic field is given by:

Hall Probe
The density of electrons is:
The density of copper is Cu = 8.96 g/cm3 and each copper atom has
one conduction electron so:
The magnetic field is then:

ASSIGNMENTS
27.21
27.25
27.33
27.45
27.51
27.53

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Magnetism

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 1

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 2

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 3

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies. Permission required for reproduction or display.

A. two new magnets, each with a north and a south pole

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 5

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 8

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 10

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 12

This is analogous to the superposition of electric fields.

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 14

A magnetic field does not exert

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 15

The direction of the

where is the angle between the velocity of the charged

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 17

The magnetic force can change the direction of the velocity

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 18

A) left side down

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 19

W. Bauer and G.D. Westfall

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 20

A tesla is a rather large amount of magnetic field strength.

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 21

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 22

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies.

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 23

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 24

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 25

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies.

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies.

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 28

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies.

Taking the charge of an electron q = e:

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 30

The magnitude of magnetic force is:

The magnetic force is the only force:

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 31

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 32

6250 km/s may seems really fast but it is only 2% of the

The force is really small but the acceleration is really large

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 33

A. Into the page

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 35

This force is provided by the magnetic force on a moving

The radius of the circular motion is:

A common way to express this relationship in terms of the

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 36

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 37

capacitor in a constant magnetic field, Permission required for reproduction or display.

directed perpendicularly into the plane of the page.

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies.

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 39

When the protons enter the velocity selector, the direction

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 40

Solving for the magnetic field gives us:

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 41

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 42

The magnetic force is:

Which agrees with the electric force, so we are satisfied.

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 43

October 17, 2017 Chapter 27 45

Here vd is the drift velocity of the electrons.