PE2 Lecture HVDC 2

UNIVERSIDAD POLITCNICA SALESIANA
DEPARTAMENTO DE
INGENIERA ELCTRICA
Dr. CARLOS GALLARDO
Campus Kennedy FACULTAD DE INGENIERA

Edificio Ingeniera Elctrica
Av. Rafael Bustamante 450 y ELCTRICA
Gonzalo Zaldumbide
Quito-Ecuador
Telfono: (593-2) 3962919

LECTURE 2 :
(593-2) 3962920
carlos.gallardo@epn.edu.ec
HIGH-VOLTAGE DIRECT CURRENT TRANSMISSION
Prof. Dr. Carlos Gallardo (Ph.D)
2015
HIGH-VOLTAGE DIRECT-CURRENT TRANSMISSION.
6: Some Economic Considerations. CONTENTS
7: Converter Circuits: Configurations and

Properties
8: Analysis of the Three-Phase Bridge

Converter.
9: Inversion in Three-Phase Bridge

Converter.
10: HVDC Link and Converter Control

Characteristics.
11: Analysis of HVDC Link Performance.

2015 Universidad Politcnica Salesiana "Dr. Carlos Gallardo" 2

Properties

Converter.

Converter.

Characteristics.

Some Economic Considerations.
The annual variable cost of operating a DC line can be assumed

the sum of two parts:
The first is cost of power lost in transmission, and the second is

the annual amortized capital cost of line and terminal stations
(converters).
The cost of DC losses can be expressed in terms of y (the loss ratio)

as:
Cost of DC losses = By
B is the annual cost of losses in the AC case.

The line and terminal costs vary directly with the required insulation
level, which in turn is voltage-dependent.
0,87
In terms of the loss ratio and = =
2
0.87A
Voltage dependent DC capital cost amortized annually =
y
The constant is expressed as: =qA
The factor q is introduced to account for the cost of terminal

stations.

The total annual costs of operating the DC line, and the variation of
the cost with loss ratio y are shown.
0.87
= +By

Variation of DC Costs with Loss Ratio y.

The voltaje-dependent AC capital cost is the basis for comparison.

The corresponding AC cost are:
= +B
Total Cost-Distance

Example 4.
Show that for minimum total annual cost of the DC line:

Cost of losses = 0.5 (cost of voltage dependent equipment).

Example 5.
The annual cost of losses for a DC line is USD $ 4x106, Assuming

that the design is optimal, find the corresponding capital cost of
voltage-dependent equipment amortized annually.
Calculate de ratio of losses in the DC case to that of the equivalent

AC option. Assume that annual cost of the latter is USD $ 5x106.

Breakeven Between AC and DC.
At the optimun:
1 3
= 0.5
2
Thus the minimun cost of the DC line in operation is according to:
3
= + 0.5 = 3

But from previous equation:
3 2
( )3 =
162
2015 Escuela Politcnica Nacional "Dr. Carlos Gallardo" 10

Rewritten as:
1/3
32
= 3 = 1.72 2 1/3
162
The capital cost of the AC transmission option is given by:
= +
In order to compare the two options available, we take the

difference in costs as the measure. We thus define the savings S
as:
=

This reduces to:

= -1.721/2 2/3
Defining the constans:

2/3
1/3
= 1.72 z=

It can be written as: = (1 2 + 3 )
Clearly S can take on negative values, indicating a cutoff value

where the DC option is no longer more economic than
corresponding AC alternative.
For Illustration purposes it is more convenient to deal with the ratio

(S/B), denoted here by :

= = 2 + 3 2 = 0 minimum

2 4 3
This occurs at a value of : =
=1
3 27
The variation of with the ratio /

is obtained by
substituting: 2
3

=1
4


Table shows a few values of the ratio / and the corresponding
values of 1 , 2 , and .

p 1 2
1.2 1.924 1.072 1.495 1.295 -0.114
1.4 2.153 0.8810 1.865 1.435 -0.478
1.6 2.353 0.8033 2.133 1.569 -0,930
1.8 2.545 0.7454 2.367 1.697 -1.442
2.0 2.730 0.7021 2.580 1.820 -2.015
Relevant Points on the versus z Characteristicas

0, 1.8899 1.1447

< 0, > 1.8899 > 1.1447

is positive for all values of z as long as /

is less than 1.1547.
< 1.1547.
Besides, > for all values of z if /
> 1.1547, and hence a range of S are

For values of /
negative.
The value of will be zero for two values of z denoted by 1 2

and will be a minimum at .

The general shape of the versus z variation is

shown.
Variation of with z for Different Ratios

Problem A-4.
The annual savings to the utility due to insulation and loss

reduction by using the DC option over the AC option depend on the
choice of the ratio x defined in Problem A-2
Sketch the variation of the total annual savings with x. Obtain the
optimun value of x for maximun total annual savings.
Assume a particular desing criterion specifies that the ratio of

insulation level for a DC bipolar line to the insulation level for the
equivalent AC three-phase line (equal power transfer) is x. Show
that the corresponding losses are related by:
4 2
=
3

Problem A-5.
High-voltage DC is used for the transmission of 800 MW power

from a remote generating site to the load center. Assume that
transmission losses are 4 percent of total using the AC alternative
and that this loss costs 35mils/kWh. A loss load factor of 0.56 is
commonly assumend. The line design is such that losses using DC
are 80 percent of their AC counterpart.
Assuming that this ratio is the optimal choice such that total annual
cost of losses and insulation are a minimum, calculate:
A. The annual cost of the losses using the AC alternative.
B. The annual cost of the losses using DC.
C. The annual cost of insulation amortized annually.
Hint:
average power loss
Loss load factor =
peak power loss


Properties

Converter.

Converter.

Characteristics.

Converter Circuits.
Single-Phase Full-Wave Rectifier.
= ( )
= ( )
= ( )
PPR= ( ) Rizado
Three-Phase One Way Circuit.
= ( )
= ( )
= ( )
Three - Phase, Two Way (Graetz) Circuit.

= ( )
vdu t
vdl t
= ( )
= ( )

A Transformer With a Center - Tapped.
A transformer with a center-tapped If the line is supplied by a

transformer having a grounded center tap V between each
conductor is half.
Neutral

1.- Single-Phase Full-Wave Rectifier .
A transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding and two

valves 1 and 2 are used. The cathodes of the valves are connected
through a large smoothing reactor to the DC load.
cathodes
neutral
180o phase Turn ratio Load

displacement
1 (t)= sin
Groups of valves can be connected in various 2 (t)= sin( 180)
ways to form a converter

Waveforms for Single-Phase Full-Wave Rectifier .
1 2 have 180o phase displacement
starting at =
is made of the positive half-waves 1 2

Single-Phase Full-Wave Rectifier .
=0 conduce
is always equal to the anode

voltage of the conducting valve
The cathodes of the two valves have a common voltage
= 1 () (0 ) First period
= 2 () ( 2)

Single-Phase Full-Wave Rectifier .
The reactor L is assumed to filter the ripple in ; i.e., the voltage

on the load side is assumed to be maintained at a constant value
due to the reactor action. This is essentially an averaging operation,
and thus:
1
= = ()
0
The direct voltage is thus given by:
1
= 0 sin () = cos 0

2
1 = = 0.6366 = 1.5708


Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV).
Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the loop to single-phase rectifier:

1 = 0 2 = 2 1
1 2 = 1 2
2 = 0 1 = 1 2
2 PIV = 2Em = Vd = 3.1416Vd
Voltampere rating of the valve is commonly referred to as PIV.

Peak to Peak Ripple (PPR).
The voltage varies from 0 to . We thus have the peak-to-
peak ripple (PPR) defined the difference between the highest and
lowest values of the output waveform given for this circuit by:
PPR = Em
In terms of the DC voltage, this is then:
3 PPR = 1.5708Vd
The PPR is a useful measure of the quality of the DC voltage.

Value Current Relationships (VCR).
Each valve conducts during the one-half cycle when the associated
anode voltage is the higher of the two anode voltages. The valve
current wave is a rectangular pulse of height and duration .
1 = (0 )
1 = 0 ( 2) - 0 2
The average valve current:
2
0 1 () 0 ()
4 = = =
2 2 2

Value Current Relationships (VCR).
- 0 2
2 2 2 2
2 0 1 () 0 ()
= =
2 2
2
2
= =
2 2

Transformer Current Relationships (TCR).
The transformer secondary currents are the same as the valve
currents. The MMF of the secondary winding is proportional to 1
2 and has an average of zero; thus no DC component of the MMF
exists.
Hence there is no tendency to saturate the core. If the turns ratio of

the transformer is T, then the primary MMF is = 1 2 . The
primary current is thus:

= (0 )

() = ( 2)


Transformer Current Relationships (TCR).
The effective value of this wave is:

=


VA Rating of Valve.
The voltampere rating of a valve is defined as the product of its

average current and its peak inverse voltage (PIV). The average
current 2 is given by:

PIV = Vd = = ( )
2 2
Where the DC power delivered is:

VA Rating of Transformer.
The voltampere rating of a transformer winding is the product of its

rms voltage and rms current.
For each half of the secondary winding this is obtained from:
2
1 = =0.707
2
1 = 0.707 = (0.707)(1.5708 ) = 1.1107

Observe that the rms values is the same as the effective. The
voltampere rating of the whole winding is:
= (2)(0.707 )(1.1107 ) =1.5708
For the primary winding we have:

=0.707 = 1.1107 =

Thus the voltampere rating for the primary winding is obtained as:

= (1.1107 ) = 1.1107


Pulse Number p.
The number of cycles of ripple of direct voltage for every cycle of

alternating voltage is called the pulse number.
For the single-phase, full-wave rectifier we have:
p=2
p =1 p =2

AC Side Winding Currents: Effect of 12-Pulse Operation.
6 pulse
Id
Id/3
2Id/3
6 pulse
Id/3
Id
12 pulse
2015 Escuela Politcnica

__________ Nacional
_____ "Dr.
__Carlos
_____Gallardo" 36
Direct Voltage and Alternating Current Wave Shapes.
Direct voltage Alternating current
2015 Escuela Politcnica

__________ Nacional
_____ "Dr.
__Carlos
_____Gallardo" 37
Three-Phase Converter.
Three-phase circuits are preferred to single-phase ones. From the

HVDC application point of view, we prefer three-phase arrangements
since the ripple of the direct voltage is smaller in magnitude and
higher in frequency than the corresponding values for the single-
phase case.

2.- Three-Phase One Way Circuit.
The one-way circuit is the simplest three-phase converter circuit.
The voltages , , and are balanced, and the anode voltages
with respect to N are equal to the corresponding transformer
secondary voltages.
The cathodes of the three valves have a common voltage to neutral .

will take on the value of the highest of the anode voltages
, , and .
Thus is the upper

envelope of the voltages
, and .

= = cos()
3 3

= = cos( 120)
3
5
= = cos( + 120)
3

The direct voltage is the average of :
1 /3 3 3 3
= 2 /3 cos ()= 2 sin =
2 3 2
3
This reduces to:

= 0.827
With the inverse relation:
=1.2092

Peak Inverse Voltage.
Consider the voltaje across valve 1:

3 3
Valve 1 is conducting:

1 = 0= ()
3
Valve 2 conducts, voltage across valve 1 is:
5
1 = () = ()
3
Valve 3 conducts, voltage across valve 1 is:

1 = () = () 1
3

We have:
Minimum of 1
1 () = cos cos( 120) = 3 cos( + 30)
Thus we conclude that the peak inverse voltage is given by:
= 3Em
In terms of the DC voltage: = 3 (1.2092)Vd Em =1.2092Vd
= 2.90944Vd

Wafeforms for Three-Phase One-Way Circuit.

Peak-to-Peak Ripple.
PPR is the difference between the voltages at = 0 and = 3.

t t

PPR = ea 0 ea = Em Em cos = 0.5Em
3 3
In terms of the DC voltage, this is given by:
PPR = 0.5(1.2092)Vd
Em =1.2092Vd
PPR = 0.6046Vd
This is clearly lower in value than the PPR for a single-phase circuit:
PPR = 1.5708Vd

Valve Current Relationships.
Each valve conducts during the one-third cycle when the associated
anode voltage is the highest. The wave of valve current is a
rectangular pulse of height and duration 23.

i1 t = Id t
3 3
5
i1 t = 0 t
3 3

The average valve current is this:
5/3 5/3 2Id

/3 i1 t d(t) /3 Id d(t) Id
Iav = = = 3 =
2 2 2 3
The effective valve current is obtained as follows:
5/3 2 5/3 2
2
id (t)d(t) Id d(t) Id2 Id
Ieff = = = =
2 2 3 3

Transformer Current Relationships.
The transformer secondary winding current is the same as the

valves. The primary side does not contain a DC component.
Therefore, the average of the primary current is zero. The expression
for the primary current to satisfy this requirement is:
Id
i1 t Iav i1 t
ipa t = = 3
T T
Id
Id 3 Id
ipa t = =2 t
T 3T 3 3
Id 5
0 Id
ipa t = 3 = t
T 3T 3 3

The effective value is given by:

2 2
/3 2Id 5/3 Id
/3 d t + /3 d t
2 3T 3T
Ipa =
eff 2
4Id2 2 Id2 4
2 + 2 2I 2
3 9T 3 = d
2
Ipa = 9T
eff 2 9T 2
Thus the effective value of the transformer primary current is:
2Id 0,4714Id
Ipaeff = =
3T T
VA Rating of Valve.
The volt-ampere rating of the valve is obtained using the definition:
VAv = Iav PIV
Id
Iav = PIV = 2.90944Vd
3
Id 2.0944
VAv = (2.0944)Vd = Pd
3 3
Where as before:
Pd = Vd Id

The transformer secondary voltage has an effective value of:
Em =1.2092Vd Eeffs =
Em
=
1.2092Vd
= 0.855Vd
2 2
The effective value of the transformers secondary windings current

is:
Id
Ieffs =
3
Thus the volt-ampere rating of the secondary is:
Id
VAts = (3)(0.855Vd ) = 1.481Vd Id = 1.481Pd
3

The primary voltage has an effective value of:
Eeffp = 0.855TVd
The effective value of the primary current is:

0.4714Id
Ipaeff =
T
Therefore we have for the VA rating of the transformers primary:
0.4714Id
VAtp = (3)(0.855TVd ) = 1.2091Pd
T

The pulse number is the number of cycles of ripple of per cycle of

the alternating voltage.
This is given by 3 in the three-phase one-way circuit.

Problem A-6.
Consider the cascade of two three-phase, one-way rectifiers shown

in following figure. Show that:
A. Average valve current is 0.333 .
B. Peak inverse voltage on a valve is 1.047 .
C. Direct-current voltage ripple, peak to peak, is 0.14 .

Problem A-6.
Cascade of Two Three-

Phase, One-Way Rectifiers.

Problem A-6.
Waveforms for the Cascade of Two

Three-Phase, One-Way Rectifiers.

3.- Three - Phase, Two Way (Graetz) Circuit.
The transformers secondary windings feed groups of three valves

each. Each group may feed a separate DC load.
vdu t
vdl t
The cathodes of the upper group
of valves (1,3,5) are connected to
the anodes of the lower group.
The common potential of the
cathodes valves , is equal to
the most positive anode voltage.

The common potential of the anodes of the lower group of valves

(2,4,6), , is equal to the most negative cathode voltage.
vdu t
vdl t
If the two loads are balanced,

the neutral may be omitted.

Assuming that the secondary transformer voltages are given by

balanced set:
ea (t) = Em cos t

eb (t) = Em cos(t 120) t
3 3
ec (t) = Em cos(t + 120)
is the most positive voltage valve 1 conducts.

vdu t = ea t = Em cos t t
3 3

is the most negative valve 2, conducts.

2
vdl t = ec t = Em cos(t + 120) 0 t
3
The output voltage is:
vd t = vdu t vdl t
vdu t
vdl t

vd t = Em cos t cos(t + 120) = 3Em cos t 30
The direct voltage is therefore given by:
1 /2 3 3
Vd = 3Em cos 30 d = Em
0
Direct voltage here is double that for the single-way circuit.

The inverse relation is: Em = 0.6046Vd 0 t
3

Three-Phase, TwoWay (Graetz) Circuit.
The transformer secondary line-to-neutral voltages.
Voltages of the anodes of the lower group of

valves and of the cathodes upper group, all with
respect to neutral point N.
voltage across valve 1
The difference in ordinates between the upper
and lower envelopes is the instantaneous direct
voltage on the valve side of the smoothing
reactor
vdu t
vdl t

We will evaluate the inverse voltage, peak-to-peak ripple, and valve

and transformer ratings. Evident that the Graetz circuit is more
efficient than the two previous circuits.
Analysis similar to that for the one-way circuit can be carried out:
PIV = 3Em
In terms of the direct voltages, this is:

PIV = Vd = 1.047Vd
3
This is the same as for the one way circuit.

Peak-to-Peak Ripple.
PPR is:

PPR = vd vd (0) = 3Em cos cos 30 = 0.2321Em
6
In terms of the direct voltage:
PPR = (0.2321)(0.6046)Vd = 0.1403Vd
The PPR of this circuit is considerably less than that for the one-way
circuit.

The load current is always carried by two valves in series, from the
upper half bridge and one from the lower. Each valve conducts for
one-third cycle, as in the one way circuit.
+
vdu t
-
vdl t
Commutation occurs:
1 to 3, then 2 to 4,
3 to 5, 4 to 6,
5 to 1, and 6 to 2 Id Id
Iav = Ieff =
3 3
Commutation occurs every one-sixth cycle 600 , the valves are numbered in the
order in which they fire (begin to conduct).

The current in each phase of the Y-connected secondary winding is

the difference of the current of two valves, the numbers of which
differ, for example, ia = i1 i4 .
ia i1
ia t = I d t
3 3
i4
2
ia t = 0 t vdu t
3 3
vdl t
2 4
ia t = Id t
3 3

The effective value is given by:
/3 2 4/3 2
2 I
/3 d d t + 2/3 Id d t 2I2d
Iaeff = =
2 3
As a result:
2
Iaeff = Id = 0.8165Id
3
2 4

3 3 3 3

VA Rating of Valve.
The volt-ampere rating of the valve is:
Id
VAv = Iav (PIV) = 1.047Vd
3
VAv = 0.349Pd

VA Rating of Transfomer.
The effective line-to-neutral secondary voltage is:
Em
Eeffs = = 0.4275Vd
2
The effective value of the phase secondary current:
Ieff = 0.8165Id
Thus the volt-ampere rating of the secondary is:

Eeffs Ieff
VAts = (3)(0.4275Vd )(0.8165Id ) = 1.0472Pd
The rating of the primary winding is the same as that for the secondary.

Other Converter Circuits.
The Graetz circuit (1) can be considered as a series combination of

two one-way circuits where one group of valves has a common
anode connection and the other group of valves has a common
cathode connection. Another circuit referred to as the cascade
circuit (2) is obtained by having both groups with a common cathode
connection each.
The transformer secondary windings

are connected in a double Y with 180
phase shift between the two
connections.

A third alternative is to connect the two groups in parallel on the DC

side.
Since the pulse ripple of the two groups is staggered, an indirect

parallel connection is used. Here the two similar poles of the groups
are connected in common to the corresponding pole of the DC line.
The opposite poles are connected through an autotransformer

(interphase transformer), whose center tap is connected to the other
pole of the DC line.

The interphase transformer may be omitted to result in the six-phase

diametrical circuit .

Problem A-8.
Consider the six-phase diametrical converter circuit shown in

following figure. Show that:
A. Average current in a valve is 0.167 .
C. Direct-current riple, peak, is 0.14.

Problem A-8.
Six-Phase Diametrical
Converter

Problem A-8.
Waveforms for the Six-Phase Diametrical Converter

Problem A-8.
Waveforms for the Six-Phase Diametrical Converter

Problem A-7.
Consider the Y-Y interphase rectifier circuit shown in following figure.

Show that:
C. Direct-current voltage ripple, peak to peak, is 0.14

Problem A-7.
Y-Y Interphase Rectifier

Circuit.

Problem A-7.
Equivalent of Y-Y
Interphase Rectifier
Circuit

Problem A-7.
2

3 0 3 3

Instead of using two three-phase circuits, a cascade of three single-

phase rectifiers may be considered.

Problem A-9.
Consider the cascade of three single-phase,full-wave rectifiers

shown in following figure. Show that:
A. Average valve current is 0.5
B. Peak inverse voltage on a valves is 1.047
C. Direct-current voltage ripple, peak to peak, is 0.14

Problem A-9.
Cascade of Three Single

Phase, Full-Wave Rectifiers.

Problem A-9.
Waveforms for Cascade of

Three Single-Phase, Full-
Wave Rectifiers

Problem A-10.
Consider the cascade of two three-phase bridge rectifiers shown in

figure (Cascade of Two Three-Phase Bridge rectifiers.). Show that:
B. Peak inverse voltage on a valve is 0.524.
C. Direct-current voltage ripple, peak to peak, is 0.035 .

Problem A-10.
Cascade of Two Three-Phase Bridge rectifiers.

Problem A-10.
Waveforms for Cascade of

Three Single-Phase, Full-
Wave Rectifiers

Comparison of Converter Circuits.
All of the circuits discussed above utilize a three phase supply with
six valves and have a pulse number of six.
Three-Phase Bridge Graets Cascade of Y-Y Six-Phase Cascade of 3
Converter Circuit, Circuit 2-3 Phases Interphase Dianmetri- Single Phases
cal
most used for HVDC
DC ripple voltage 0,140 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.140
Peak inverse voltage 1.047 1.047 2.094 2.094 1.047
Transformer secondary rms 0.428 0.428 0.855 0.740 0.379
voltage
Peak valve current 1.000 1.000 0.500 1.000 1.000

Average valve current 0.333 0.333 0.167 0.167 0.500
Transformer secondary 0.816 0.577 0.289 0.4081 0.707
Rms current
All valves VA 2.094 2.094 2.094 2.094 3.142

Transformer primary VA 1.047 1.047 1.047 1.283 1.111
Transformer secondary VA 1.047 1.481 1.481 1.814 1.571
The most advantageous circuit is Graetz Circuit

PE2 Lecture HVDC 2

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UNIVERSIDAD POLITCNICA SALESIANA

Dr. CARLOS GALLARDO

Campus Kennedy FACULTAD DE INGENIERA

Telfono: (593-2) 3962919

Prof. Dr. Carlos Gallardo (Ph.D)

7: Converter Circuits: Configurations and

8: Analysis of the Three-Phase Bridge

9: Inversion in Three-Phase Bridge

10: HVDC Link and Converter Control

11: Analysis of HVDC Link Performance.

7: Converter Circuits: Configurations and

8: Analysis of the Three-Phase Bridge

9: Inversion in Three-Phase Bridge

10: HVDC Link and Converter Control

11: Analysis of HVDC Link Performance.

The annual variable cost of operating a DC line can be assumed

The first is cost of power lost in transmission, and the second is

The cost of DC losses can be expressed in terms of y (the loss ratio)

B is the annual cost of losses in the AC case.

2015 Universidad Politcnica Salesiana "Dr. Carlos Gallardo" 4

The constant is expressed as: =qA

The factor q is introduced to account for the cost of terminal

2015 Universidad Politcnica Salesiana "Dr. Carlos Gallardo" 5

Variation of DC Costs with Loss Ratio y.

2015 Universidad Politcnica Salesiana "Dr. Carlos Gallardo" 6

The voltaje-dependent AC capital cost is the basis for comparison.

2015 Universidad Politcnica Salesiana "Dr. Carlos Gallardo" 7

Show that for minimum total annual cost of the DC line:

2015 Universidad Politcnica Salesiana "Dr. Carlos Gallardo" 8

The annual cost of losses for a DC line is USD $ 4x106, Assuming

Calculate de ratio of losses in the DC case to that of the equivalent

2015 Universidad Politcnica Salesiana "Dr. Carlos Gallardo" 9

Thus the minimun cost of the DC line in operation is according to:

But from previous equation:

2015 Escuela Politcnica Nacional "Dr. Carlos Gallardo" 10

The capital cost of the AC transmission option is given by:

In order to compare the two options available, we take the

2015 Escuela Politcnica Nacional "Dr. Carlos Gallardo" 11

This reduces to:

Defining the constans:

It can be written as: = (1 2 + 3 )

Clearly S can take on negative values, indicating a cutoff value

For Illustration purposes it is more convenient to deal with the ratio

The variation of with the ratio /

2015 Escuela Politcnica Nacional "Dr. Carlos Gallardo" 13

Relevant Points on the versus z Characteristicas

is positive for all values of z as long as /

> 1.1547, and hence a range of S are

The value of will be zero for two values of z denoted by 1 2

2015 Escuela Politcnica Nacional "Dr. Carlos Gallardo" 15

The general shape of the versus z variation is

Variation of with z for Different Ratios

2015 Escuela Politcnica Nacional "Dr. Carlos Gallardo" 16

The annual savings to the utility due to insulation and loss

Assume a particular desing criterion specifies that the ratio of

2015 Universidad Politcnica Salesiana "Dr. Carlos Gallardo" 17

High-voltage DC is used for the transmission of 800 MW power

2015 Universidad Politcnica Salesiana "Dr. Carlos Gallardo" 18

7: Converter Circuits: Configurations and

8: Analysis of the Three-Phase Bridge

9: Inversion in Three-Phase Bridge

10: HVDC Link and Converter Control

11: Analysis of HVDC Link Performance.