Environmental Management Course Slides

Environmental
Management
Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

SLIDES
Environmental Management
 What is this course about?
 What will we learn?
 How will you be evaluated?

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What is this course about?
 Ecology
 Policy making
 Planning
 Social Development
 Industrial welfare

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What will we learn?
 Prevention and resolution of Environmental
Problems
 Establishing limits
 Establishing and nurturing institutions that
effectively support Environmental Research,
monitoring and management
 Warning of threats and identifying opportunities

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What will we learn?
 sustaining and, if possible improving,
existing resources;
 where possible improving ‘quality of life’;
 identifying new technology or policies that
are useful.

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How will you be evaluated?
 Assignments
 Projects
 End Term
 Class Participation

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Implication of Environmental
Management to us
 Any intrusion into nature has numerous effects, many of which are
unpredictable (environmental management must cope with the
unexpected).
 Because ‘everything is connected’, humans and nature are
inextricably bound together; what one person does affects others
(environmental management must consider chains of causation,
looking beyond the local and short term).
 Care needs to be taken that substances produced by humans do
not interfere with any of the Earth’s biogeochemical processes
(environmental management must monitor natural processes and
human activities to ensure no crucial process is upset).

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Approaches to environmental
management
 Systems approach
 Regional approach
 Specialist discipline approach
 Strategic environmental management approach
 Voluntary sector approach
 Commercial approach
 Political economy or political ecology approach
 Human ecology approach

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Why Environmental Management?
 Damage to the environment can be a

function of:
 1 human population numbers;
 2 high levels of consumption of that
population (i.e. lifestyle);
 3 technology used to satisfy consumption
and dispose of waste

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Decision Making in Environmental
Management

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Problems in EM
 Inadequate Data
 Gaps in Knowledge about Environment
 Politics
 Lobbying
 Media
 Lack of funding
 Lack of Expertise
 Lack of adequate time to handle problems
 Difficulty in prediction

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ANALYSING AND
MANAGING
ENVIRONMENTAL
PROBLEMS

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The theory of demographic
transition
 suggests that populations pass through three distinct
stages of development.
 According to this model, in the pre-modern period
numbers are essentially static with birth and death rates
broadly equal;
 the second stage is associated with modernisation and is
marked by a period of rapid population growth,
 while the third stage heralds renewed stability and low
birth and death rates in the post-modern period.

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Implication of population growth
 a world population of high magnitude is
bound greatly to increase the pressure on
the environment;
 but it should also be borne in mind that
population-induced pressure on the
environment is as much a function of
technology and living standards as of
simple numbers.

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Impact of population growth on
Environment
 Rapid human population growth in the world today is a
major challenge to environmental management.
 The current world population is nearly 6 billion—a
quarter of a million people are being added daily—and
populations in a few countries are doubling every
seventeen years.
 As a result, pollutants are being produced practically
everywhere in the world by human activities faster than
they can be managed and/or degraded by natural biota
and the environment.

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Depletion of resources
 In addition to the increasing pollution of
the natural environment, land, water,
energy, and biological resources are being
rapidly degraded.

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Need for Environmental
Management
 Current world population is about 6 billion. It is projected
to reach 10 billion by 2040, based on the present growth
rate of 1.5 per cent per year (PRB, 1995).
 This large increase should signal a call for taking urgent
and appropriate action on the use and management of
resources because, clearly, erosion of farmland, overuse
of both surface and groundwater, dwindling supplies of
finite fossil fuels, and accelerating extinction of plant and
animal species imperil the ability of earth’s resources to
meet the needs of such enormous numbers

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Alarming Human Conditions
 The world food situation is becoming critical.
 At present more than 2 billion humans are
malnourished and live under unhealthy
conditions (FAO, 1992a, 1992b; Neisheim, 1993;
McMichael, 1993; Maberly, 1994; Bouis, 1995);
the number of humans who are diseased is the
largest ever; and about 40,000 children die each
day from disease and malnutrition (Kutzner,
1991; Tribe, 1994).

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World Population Numbers

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Limits of Human Consumption
 In addition to constraints on resource availability,
high consumption rates also put a limit on
resources.
 For example, each American consumes about
twenty-three times more goods and services
than the average citizen of a developing country.
In particular, an average American consumes
about fifty-three times more goods and services
than a Chinese citizen (PRB, 1995).

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Impact of American Consumption
 The excessive consumption levels of Americans
have led to their dependence on imported
natural resources, and this is reflected by the
fact that the USA has the largest debt of any
nation in the world (USBC, 1994).
 However, with declining resources throughout
the world, the ability to import foreign resources
will no doubt be curtailed in time.

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American Consumption
 Ever since the 1850s Americans have relied increasingly on diverse
energy sources, rather than on human power, for their food and
forest products.
 Typically, relatively cheap and abundant supplies of fossil fuel have
been substituted for human and draft animal energy. Fossil-based
fertilisers and pesticides, as well as fossil-run machinery, have
enabled US farmers to minimise the need for human energy in
farming activities.
 It is interesting to note, however, that at present Chinese farmers
use more fertiliser and pesticides per hectare than American
farmers (Wen and Pimentel, 1992).
 They also rely on about 1,200 hrs/ha/yr of human labour for grain
production, compared with only 10 hrs/ha per year for the US farmer
(Wen and Pimentel, 1984; Wen and Pimentel, 1992).

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 Industry, transportation, home heating, and food production account
for most of the fossil energy consumed in the United States (DOE,
1991, 1995a).
 In China, on the other hand, most of the fossil energy is used by
industry, although a substantial amount, approximately 25 per cent,
is used for food production (Kinzelbach, 1983; Smil, 1984; Wen and
Pimentel, 1992).
 Per capita consumption of fossil energy in the United States is 8,740
litres of oil equivalents per year, which is more than twelve times
that of China (Table 1.1). Furthermore, per capita energy
consumption in the USA is nearly seven times the world average—a
clear demonstration of overconsumption.

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Resource Consumption
Comparison (Table 1.1)
Resources USA China World
Land
Cropland (ha) 0.71a 0.08c 0.27e

Pasture (ha) 0.91a 0.33c 0.57e
Forest (ha) 1.00a 0.11c 0.75e
Total (ha) 2.62 0.52 1.59
Water (litres×106) 5.1b 0.46c 0.64c
Fossil fuel
Oil equivalents (litres) 8,740b 700d 1,500f

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STATUS OF WORLD
ENVIRONMENTAL
RESOURCES

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Necessary natural resources
 The quantity and quality of arable land,
water, energy, and biodiversity, balanced
against the size of world human
population, determine the current and
future status of the very environmental
resources which support and sustain
human life.

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Land area (million ha) uses in
major regions of the world
Region Total area Cropland Pasture Forest Other*
Africa 2,965 184 792 688 1,301
N. America 2,139 274 368 684 813
S. America 1,753 140 468 905 240
Asia 2,679 450 678 541 1,010
Europe 473 140 84 157 92
Total 10,009 1,188 2,390 2,975 3,456
100% 12% 24% 30% 34%

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Land Availability
 About 0.5 ha of cropland per capita is needed to
provide a diverse and nutritious diet of plant and
animal foods (Lal, 1989). At present there is
slightly more than this amount in the USA.
 In China, on the other hand, there is only 0.08
ha of cropland per capita to feed the people, and
this amount is fast declining because of both
continuing population growth and rapid land
degradation (Leach, 1995).

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Consumption of agri produce
 Currently an average American consumes a total of
1,481 kg of agricultural produce annually. This compares
with only 476 kg/capita/yr for an average Chinese and a
world average of 614 kg/capita/yr
 Based on available data, each person in China eats
essentially a vegetarian diet. By all measurements, the
Chinese have reached the carrying capacity of their
agricultural system.
 And their increasing use of fossil-based fertilisers and
other inputs to compensate for severely eroded soils
fore-shadows problems in the future

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Land Degradation
 Escalating land degradation threatens
most of the crop and pasture lands
throughout the world (Lal and Pierce,
1991; Pimentel et al., 1995).
 The major types of degradation include
erosion by rainfall and wind, and
salinisation and water-logging of irrigated
soils (Kendall and Pimentel, 1994).

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Land Erosion problem
 Current erosion rates throughout the world are of
particular concern because of the slow rate of
topsoil formation—
 it takes approximately 500 years for 2.5 cm (1
inch) of topsoil to form under agricultural
conditions (OTA, 1982; Elwell, 1985; Troeh et
al., 1991; Pimentel et al., 1995).
 Thus, topsoil is now being lost 13 to 40 times
faster than it is being replaced.

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Availbility of water resources
 The greatest threat to the maintenance of fresh water
supplies is the overdraft of surface and groundwater
resources that are being used increasingly to supply the
needs of the rapidly growing human population and of
agriculture to provide its food.
 Agricultural production ‘consumes’ more fresh water than
any other human activity (Falkenmark, 1989).
 About 87 per cent of the fresh water pumped worldwide
is ‘consumed’ (non-recoverable) by agriculture (Postel,
1989), while in the United States this figure is about 85
per cent (NAS, 1989).

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Water Consumption compared
 An average person needs nearly three litres of
water to drink per day, including the water in milk
and other foods, in addition to a minimum of 90
litres per day for cooking, washing, and other
domestic activities (Brewster, 1987).
 This compares with 400 litres per day for the
domestic needs of an average American (USBC,
1994).

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Pollution problems
 Another major threat to the maintenance of the
integrity of fresh water resources is pollution
caused by people and industry.
 Pollution by sewage and disease organisms—as
well as by the 100,000 different chemicals used
worldwide—makes water unsuitable not only for
drinking but also for application to crops (Nash,
1993).

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Energy Consumption
 World consumption of energy today is about 381
quads per year from all energy sources (one
quad is equal to 1015 BTU or 337×1018 joules).
 Increasing energy consumption is a direct
reflection of the rapid growth in world population,
and it is adding significantly to the degradation of
the natural environment by human activities

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Energy consumption compared
 Although about 50 per cent of all solar energy captured
by photosynthesis is used by humans worldwide, this is
proving to be inadequate for meeting the energy
demands of food and forest production (Pimentel, 1989;
Pimentel et al., 1997a).
 To make up the shortfall, about 321 quads of fossil
energy are being used worldwide each year (UNEP,
1985; IEA, 1991).
 Of this, 81 quads are consumed in the USA alone
 (one quad is equal to 1015 BTU or 337×1018 joules).

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Fossil and solar energy use in the USA
and the world (quads)
USA World
Total consumption 93.97a 381.13
Petroleum 33.71a 136.17b
Natural gas 20.81a 75.15b
Coal 19.43a 87.60b
Nuclear power 6.52a 22.10b
Biomass 6.80a 28.50d
Hydroelectric power 3.00c 23.81b

Geothermal and wind
0.30c 0.80b
power
Biofuels (ethanol) 3.40c 7.00e

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Fossil Energy
 Developed countries consume about 80 per cent
of the world’s fossil energy annually, compared
with only 20 per cent consumed by developing
countries in which 75 per cent of the world’s
population lives (UNEP, 1985; DOE, 1991).
 The USA alone consumes about 25 per cent (81
quads) of the world’s fossil energy output
annually

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Biological resources
 In addition to land, water resources, and
crop and livestock species, humans
depend on the existence and functioning
of approximately 10 million other species
present in agro-ecosystems and in nature
(Pimentel et al., 1992), and no technology
can be substituted to perform the essential
services they provide (e.g. the wild biota).

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Resources and human diseases
 Many of the diseases associated with the deteriorating quality of
water, air, and soil rob humans of their health and eventually their
livelihood.
 But there are profound differences between the causes of death in
developed and developing regions of the world.
 Communicable, maternal, and/or prenatal diseases account for 40
per cent of the deaths in developing regions compared with only 5
per cent in the developed regions (WHO, 1994).
 While there is a host of reasons for this mortality and for disease
and health problems in general, inadequate food and contaminated
water and soil are considered to be the major contributors.

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Environment and
Business

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Environment as a Competitive
Strategy for Business
 The environment is in the process of
becoming a major new competitive area
for business. Understanding the impact
of the relevant issues and responding
to the resulting opportunities and
threats will become an important
source of competitive advantage.
 (Elkington and Burke, 1987)

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Relationship between Environment
and Business

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Impact of Business on Environment
 First, business activities have an impact on the
environment.
 This occurs through pollution, the modification of
ecosystems, introducing exotic species and
chemical compounds, genetic engineering and
irreversible physical changes-the sorts of
impacts widely reported in the popular press and
television.

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Impact of Environment on Business
 Second, but less obvious, are the impacts the
environment has on business.
 Changes in climate have led to changes in
business activity.
 Depleting resources or physical limitations on the
use of some materials have changed patterns of
exploitation and their uses.
 Changing environmental conditions have led to the
birth of new industries.

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Impact of Environmental Concerns
 Third, business activities are influenced by
environmental concerns.
 It is hard to identify a business where environmental
concerns have no impact on its operations.
 For most businesses, environmental issues are less
important than other external influences such as the
state of the economy or the behaviour of its competitors.
 For some, which are close to the environment such as
agriculture or tourism, the impacts can be at the top of
their agenda.

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Influences of Environmentalism
 Environmental legislation, customer
attitudes to the environment along with
direct (and more subtle) actions by
environmental groups are among the most
obvious influences which can be grouped
together under the umbrella term of
environmentalism

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Need for Corporate Image
 Fourth, business has worked hard to influence
public opinion about the environment. While
many such actions can be seen merely as
window dressing, we shall see that many
business opportunities have been seized to pro-
actively develop products and services resulting
in environmental improvement.
 Business has actively promoted some of its
activities in terms of the environmental benefits
they have brought.

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Factors that have prompted business
interest in environmental management:
 ♦ globalization (i.e. media, finance, etc., becoming
global);
 ♦ ‘glasnost’ (i.e. increasing public demand for access to
information);
 ♦ activity of green business groups, especially since the
1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development;
 ♦ trade union and NGO concern for environmental
issues;
 ♦ a wish by companies to reduce inspection by
regulatory bodies;
 ♦ insistence by funding, insurance and licensing bodies
that impact assessment and eco-audit be conducted;

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 ♦ ethical (green) investment policies adopted by some companies (in
the USA a group of powerful investors now apply a set of
environmental policy principles—the ‘Valdez Principles’) (North, 1992);
 ♦ genuine sense of responsibility (some companies have been founded
by people with a strong sense of moral duty);
 ♦ avoidance of litigation;
 ♦ the establishment since the 1970s of increasingly powerful
environmental ministries in most countries;
 ♦ formation of bodies like the Institute of Environmental Management
(UK);
 ♦ promotion of the Integrated Systems for Environmental Management
and the Business Charter for Sustainable Development (International
Chamber of Commerce, 1991);
 ♦ provision of courses on environmental management at university
business schools;
 ♦ the UN Center on Transnational Corporations has promoted
sustainable development.

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Tasks of a business environmental
manager include:
 ♦ education of employees to be aware of environmental
issues;
 ♦ updating management on relevant environmental
regulation, laws and issues;
 ♦ selecting specialists and checking that environmental
management tasks contracted out to consultants have
been satisfactorily conducted and are properly acted
upon;
 ♦ ensuring waste management is satisfactory;
 ♦ avoiding legal costs, reducing insurance premiums, risk
and hazard assessment;
 ♦ if need be correcting mistakes of the past.

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Corporate environmental
management: the parties involved

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Definition of business
environmental management
 A typical definition of business
environmental management would be:
‘efforts to minimize the negative
environmental impact of the firm’s
products throughout their life cycle’
(Klassen and McLaughlin, 1996:119).

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Topics on environmental management and
sustainable development for business
 greening of business (often by sector, e.g. tourism management and environment);
 environmental management for sustainable development of business;
 green corporate environmental management;
 total quality management/environmental management systems;
 eco-audit;
 impact assessment, hazard and risk assessment;
 green business ethics;
 green marketing, labelling, life-cycle assessment;
 recycling and waste disposal;
 health and safety;
 environmentally sound investment and funding;
 environmental law and business.
 Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
 Social Audits

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Business Charter for Sustainable
Development:
 1 Corporate priority To recognize environmental management as
among the highest corporate priorities and as a key determinant to
sustainable development; to establish policies, programmes and
practices for conducting operations in an environmentally sound
manner.
 2 Integrated management To integrate these policies, programmes
and practices fully into each business as an essential element of
management in all its functions.
 3 Process of improvement To continue to improve corporate
policies, programmes and environmental performance, taking into
account technical developments, scientific understanding, consumer
needs and community expectations, with legal regulations as a
starting-point; and to apply the same environmental criteria
internationally.
 4 Employee education To educate, train and motivate employees to
conduct their activities in an environmentally responsible manner.

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 5 Prior assessment To assess environmental impacts before starting
a new activity or project, and before decommissioning a facility or
leaving a site.
 6 Products and services To develop and provide products or services
that have no undue environmental impact and are safe in their
intended use, that are efficient in their consumption of energy and
natural resources, and that can be recycled, reused, or disposed of
safely.
 7 Customer advice To advise, and where relevant educate,
customers, distributors and the public, in the safe use, transportation,
storage and disposal of products provided; and to apply similar
considerations to the provision of services.
 8 Facilities and operations To develop, design and operate facilities
and conduct activities, taking into consideration the efficient use of
energy and materials, the sustainable use of renewable resources,
the minimization of adverse environmental impact and waste
generation, and the safe and responsible disposal of residual waste.

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 9 Research To conduct or support research on the environmental impacts of
raw materials, products, processes, emissions and wastes, associated with the
enterprise, and on the means of minimizing any adverse impacts.
 10 Precautionary approach To modify the manufacture, marketing or use of
products or services or the conduct of activities, consistent with scientific and
technical understanding, to prevent serious or irreversible environmental
degradation. The 1991 Second World Industry Conference on Environmental
Management (Rotterdam) promoted the ‘precautionary principle’. One problem
for those proposing a development is how much proof of a risk they need
before taking possibly expensive precautions—what seems to be be widely
followed is to establish whether there is a ‘reasonably foreseeable risk’ or a
‘significant risk’ (Birnie and Boyle, 1992:95-6).
 11 Contractors and suppliers To promote the adoption of these principles by
contractors acting on behalf of the enterprise, encouraging and, where
appropriate, requiring improvements in their practices to make them consistent
with those of the enterprise; and to encourage the widest adoption of these
principles by suppliers.
 12 Emergency preparedness To develop and maintain, where significant
hazards exist, emergency preparedness plans in conjunction with the
emergency services, relevant authorities and the local community, recognizing
potential transboundary impacts.

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 13 Transfer of technology To contribute to the transfer of
environmentally sound technology and management methods
throughout the industrial and public sectors.
 14 Contributing to the common effort To contribute to the development
of public policy and to business, governmental and intergovernmental
programmes and educational initiatives that will enhance
environmental awareness and protection.
 15 Openness of concerns To foster openness and dialogue with
employees and the public, anticipating and responding to their
concerns about the potential hazards and impacts of operations,
products, wastes or services, including those of transboundary or
global significance.
 16 Compliance and reporting To measure environmental
performance; to conduct regular environmental audits and
assessments of compliance with company requirements, legal
requirements, and these principles; and periodically to provide
appropriate information to the Board of Directors, shareholders,
employees, the authorities and the public.

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Environmentalism
 The protection of the environment can be
considered as coming within the custodianship
of three distinct groups:
 1 governments or official agencies with statutory
obligations to protect the environment;
 2 environmental pressure groups who broadly
believe they can add something to that being
done by statutory means;
 3 individuals who have an opinion on the
environment and who may take positive steps to
protect it..

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 The reaction to environmental concerns
may differ in various parts of the world,
even within the same company. A series
of factors come together to steer MNCs in
different directions.

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 • Companies may have individual parts of their
operations with contrasting attendant environmental risks
in separate countries. A company may have all its
manufacturing capability in a Third World country or,
may mine in one country, process in a second and
assemble and market finished products in a third.
 • Where company operations are further away from their
home base, adherence to standards may fall short of
stated policies. This results either because managerial
control is less or it may be a deliberate policy of a
company tacitly supporting the irregular (and cheaper)
practices of its subsidiary.

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 Environmental standards and monitoring of standards
vary in different parts of the world. Hence practices
which are legal (and cheaper) in one country may be
illegal in another. This may influence a company to move
its operations across national boundaries.
 • On the positive side, companies are aware of
legislation and accepted practice through their spheres
of operation and so may well adopt as company policy
the best practice throughout their plants and so raise
accepted standards world-wide.

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 MNCs have the advantage of being able to shift their
operations to countries where conditions best enable
them to fulfil their mission and have the infrastructure to
develop brands with a world-wide image. However, the
world has not only become smaller for such companies,
it has also become smaller for the media and the
pressure groups who are aware of developments. This
means that adverse exposure in one country can have a
world-wide impact on operations and so increasingly
companies are adopting world-wide standards and
awareness of the environmental consequences of their
actions.

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The changing
environment

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Preservation of Ancient
Environment
 In 1800 the world was much closer to its natural state than it is
today.
 Despite people having lived on every continent for millennia, much
of the world was sparsely inhabited and in huge areas of North and
South America, Siberia, Sub-Saharan Africa, Australasia and the
Pacific islands a true wilderness still existed.
 Although there had been former civilizations, such the Aztecs, the
Mayans and the Incas, little long-term effect on the environment had
resulted.
 This may be due to the fact that population numbers were not large
and that the populations had had an ethos of co-existence with
nature.

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Process of Change
 Population growth
 Agricultural practices
 Urbanization
 Industrialization

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Orientation of Environmental
Movements-The Romantics
 Blunden and Curry (1985) have identified three
strands of the environmental movement during
its early days. First were the Romantics whose
prime concern was the preservation of God's
glory but as the world got smaller felt the
balance of nature was being disturbed. They
saw no need to improve nature and resented
any intrusion by urbanization into the rural
beauty.

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The Scientists
 The second environmental group were the
scientists preserving nature as an outdoor
laboratory. They searched for the secrets
nature could reveal rather than merely
admiring its aesthetic value.

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The Utilitarians
 The third group were the Utilitarians who
wished to conserve particular aspects of
the environment as an exploitable
resource. In many ways, individual
preservation groups of today can see their
roots in this movement.

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Industrial ecology
 This is an approach which examines industrial, economic
and resource activities from a biological and
environmental, rather than a monetary point of view
(Frosch and Gallopoulos, 1989).
 Allenby and Richards (1994) saw it as integrating
environmental concern into economic activity. Industrial
ecology regards waste and pollution as uneconomic and
harmful, and seeks to ‘dovetail’ them with raw materials.
 This means that wherever possible industry should use
by-products, and go beyond the reduction of wastes to
make use of what remains by the producer or other
bodies.

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Pigouvian taxes
 Some people advocate going beyond the sort of industrial
ecology-based strategy adopted by Kalundborg to a fully
cyclic economy, i.e. one which yields virtually no waste
because recycling and by-product recovery are complete.
 Making manufacturers responsible for some or all of the
costs of recycling or waste disposal is one way of
encouraging waste reduction and industrial ecology.
 There are various ways of doing this: one is to levy
Pigouvian taxes. Named after the 1920s UK economist
Arthur Pigou, these aim to ensure a manufacturer pays all
costs from raw material and energy provision to final
collection and recycling.

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“Polluter Pays” Principle
 Pigouvian taxes may present problems:
large companies may make sufficient
profits to afford fines, but small companies
could be crippled.
 So, the ‘polluter-pays’ principle can be a
virtual licence to pollute if the fines are not
set high enough, and that can damage
small businesses (Beaumont, 1992).

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Green marketing
 Some companies and public bodies had recognized by
the early 1980s that a satisfactory green image could
improve public relations, and perhaps provide a
marketing niche (Charter, 1992; Coddington, 1993;
Peattie, 1995).
 There are manufacturers that have gained from this, and
offer genuinely improved products— e.g. refrigerators
that use less electricity, do not leak CFCs, and which are
easier to recycle, and firms which manufacture
equipment for monitoring and managing environmental
quality.

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Consumer protection bodies
 Alongside the growth in green marketing there
has been a spread of green consumerism (The
Council of Economic Priorities of the United
States, 1989; Mintel, 1990; Irvine, 1989).
 Consumer protection bodies have been active
since the 1960s, and have not been restricted to
the developed countries, e.g. one Malaysian
body has been active in its own country and
works for consumers elsewhere—the
Consumers Association Penang.

SLIDES
Ecolabelling
 The marking of goods to indicate that they are environmentally
friendly (ecolabelling) has been adopted in many countries, including
Canada, the USA, Germany and Sweden).
 In most cases the product is judged against similar goods by an
independent agency to establish whether it has less environmental
impact (without formal eco-auditing).
 Germany was one of the first countries to introduce ecolabelling in
1978, with its Umweltzeichen or Blaue Engel system (Hemmelskamp
and Brockmann, 1997).
 This relies on a jury of experts supervised by the Federal
Environment Ministry to award the right to display a mark on
packaging or in adverts.
 This is a way of influencing the behaviour of consumers, helping
them identify the environmental impacts of products, and encourages
manufacturers to reduce the impacts of their products

SLIDES
Ecolabels

SLIDES
Total quality management and
environmental management systems
 Total quality management (TQM) (also called company-
wide quality management) aims to provide assurance of
adherence to policy and specifications through a
structured management system, and to enable
demonstration of it to third parties through
documentation and record-keeping.
 TQM was first formulated in the USA, and largely
developed in Japan in the early post-war period to try to
improve industrial competitiveness.

SLIDES
Environmental Management
Systems
 Environmental management systems (EMSs) show adherence to a
suitable environmental policy, the meeting of appropriate
environmental objectives (equivalent to specifications in quality
management) and the ability to demonstrate to a wide range of
interested parties (‘customers’ in TQM) that the system
requirements and objectives are met.
 EMSs, usually require that a company or body publishes and
regularly updates an Environmental Policy Statement.
 An EMS provides an organizational structure, procedures and
resources for implementing environmental policy.
 It also provides a language of performance and quality that can be
understood by management (Willig, 1994; British Standards
Institution, 1996).

SLIDES
Covenants
 A government or other regulatory body can
provide companies with a more stable regulatory
environment and encourage development of
better pollution control plans or adoption of an
EMS (Beardsley et al., 1997:33) through a
covenant.
 This is a written, voluntary agreement signed by
the company or other body and the government
or agency seeking regulation.

SLIDES
Life-cycle analysis
 Many development activities are processes
which have different stages—for example,
manufacturing a car or running a power station
involve raw materials and energy provision, plant
construction, manufacturing, distribution, use
and disposal or decommissioning.
 Equipment is usually subject to wear and tear,
and so varies in performance and presents
different risks as it ages and as management
acquire experience (or become complacent).

SLIDES
Life Cycle Analysis
 It is therefore undesirable to assess impacts or develop
environmental management policies by simply taking a
snapshot view. Life-cycle analysis (or assessment) has
been developed to try to consider the whole of an
activity, which may extend beyond the time horizon of a
single owner.
 It is cradle-to-grave study of an activity or company
(British Standards Institution, 1994a; Fava, 1994;
Pidgeon and Brown, 1994; Franklin, 1995).

SLIDES
Environmental management and
business: the current situation
 ♦ the majority of businesses are aware that
environmental issues are important;
 ♦ some businesses are doing something—it may be from
genuine concern, but often it is for public relations or
profit motives;
 ♦ too often businesses adopt a ‘react and repair’
approach, rather than following precautionary principles;
 ♦ only a few businesses are acting at a strategic level;
 ♦ business is in need of strategies like industrial ecology,
but will need to be encouraged or forced to adopt them.

SLIDES
Business Implementation
of Environment
Management

SLIDES
Environment-Business Approach
 Integration of environmental and core concerns
lies very close to the heart of this new corporate
view.
 Better information about the environmental
aspects of their day-to-day activities and a
growing recognition that they could deal
effectively with many environmental concerns by
changing their day-to-day activities led a growing
number of large firms to seek better ways to do
this.

SLIDES
 Example 1
Procter & Gamble: Justifying Environmental Actions
 P&G sought, where possible, to link environmental decisions to quantitative
cost-benefit assessments but recognized that less-quantitative, strategic
arguments were also relevant, particularly when they did not require
significant investments. Similarly, in a corporate culture that sought to
reduce complexity, P&G recognized that any chemical emission tends to
increase process complexity by inviting potential regulatory intrusion. P&G
argued that proactive environmental policy protected P&G's long-term
franchise to conduct business as strategically as possible. This gave P&G
the flexibility to develop its own solutions to environmental problems. It
helped build trust with regulators and the local community, supporting
mutually attractive partnerships that reduced P&G's compliance costs and
reduced external constraints over the long run. This perspective led P&G to
reduce its use of chlorine and ammonium nitrogen and to address odor
problems raised by the community, even though regulators required no
actions on these issues.

SLIDES
 Example 3
Volvo: Strategic Goal-Setting and Target-Setting
 The AB Volvo Environmental Board challenged its companies every year to
set goals compatible with Volvo's broader strategic priorities on business,
safety, and environmental performance. Once the individual companies set
goals, the Corporate Environmental Board reviewed and compared them.
This generated spirited competition among the companies that, tempered by
corporate oversight, reinforced ownership and stimulated continuing
improvement. Environmental specialists and other functions at Volvo Car
Company worked together to set production and product goals for energy
efficiency and fuel consumption, emissions in manufacturing and product
use, recycling and waste management, and sustainability. Volvo set a clear
target for each goal and tracked progress against the target. Each
engineering department—e.g., exterior, body, chassis, engine, transmission,
styling, interior—used these targets to develop its investment strategy. Each
product design team used these targets to set performance and cost goals
for new products. This approach allowed Volvo decisionmakers throughout
the company to look beyond environmental regulations to understand how
their decisions related to broader strategic goals in Volvo.

SLIDES
Integrating Environmental
Approach in Business Interests
 RAND's analysis indicates that the
proactive firms conducting these
experiments have used nine devices to
integrate environmental concerns more
effectively into core corporate activities

SLIDES
 IDENTIFY STAKEHOLDERS AND RELATED
GOALS
 MAINTAIN SENIOR LEADERSHIP SUPPORT
 GIVE ENVIRONMENTAL CHAMPIONS DAY-
TO-DAY RESPONSIBILITY

SLIDES
 Example 4
Procter & Gamble: Community Interview Program
 P&G's Mehoopany plant conducted in-depth interviews with
community stakeholders on their views about the plant. Interviews
covered employees from the community, others randomly chosen
on the telephone, and “thought leaders” in the local community—
environmental leaders, regulators, teachers, newspaper editors,
health professionals, and leaders from other businesses. These
interviews gave the plant a good picture of its local image, including
any indications of concern. They allowed plant staff to meet face to
face with many important external players, promoting a dialogue
that could proceed without the pressure imposed by an immediate,
specific decision or crisis. And they gave the nonenvironmental
plant personnel who helped conduct these interviews a
morepersonal understanding of how environmental concerns in the
community affected their core interests inside the plant

SLIDES
 Example 5
Volvo: Environmental Competency Center
 Volvo Car Company's Environmental Competency Center was part
of its Strategy and Business Development organization, which was
broadly responsible for property development, product planning,
customer software and hardware development, marketing, and
target market decisions. The center's staff affected decisions in
Volvo only by persuading others to act. It recommended corporate
environmental policies for higher-level consideration. It affected
product design by persuading individual product design teams to
consider environmental effects in their designs. To do this, a group
of experts on all phases of auto life—development, production, use,
and recycling—worked with environmental coordinators to develop
goals and strategies for the company and its business units. Placing
this center at a single high level within Volvo provided the basis for a
critical mass important to effective mutual support and information
sharing.

SLIDES
 Example 7
Hewlett-Packard: Environmental Stewardship Program
 HP's environmental stewardship program in effect built an entire corporate
environmental policy around champions strategically placed throughout a
highly decentralized and entrepreneurial organization. Each business and
product line had a steward. This placed 75 to 100 environmental champions
in normal business processes—research and development (R&D),
marketing, manufacturing, procurement, distribution, and especially design—
around the world. Stewards established policies and tools supporting
environmental policy implementation for the business overall. They
communicated to raise awareness; tracked, assessed, and related market
and legislative trends to HP strategic goals; advocated new procedures to
reflect environmental priorities in corporate decisions; and deployed metrics
and other tools to support decisionmaking. In each product line, stewards
effectively linked environmental issues to design teams. To ensure that they
were effective where they worked, HP chose stewards for their experience in
R&D, manufacturing, or marketing as often as it did for their environmental
experience. HP valued salesmanship, enthusiasm, aggressiveness, and
influence in these stewards, who could affect corporate outcomes primarily
by persuading others in HP that environmental concerns were important to
HP's strategic goals and corporate performance.

SLIDES
 BUILD COALITIONS WITH OTHER INTERNAL
INTERESTS
 INTEGRATE RELEVANT ELEMENTS OF THE
VALUE CHAIN
 STATE ENVIRONMENTAL GOALS IN SIMPLE,
SPECIFIC TERMS

SLIDES
 Example 9
DuPont and Olin: Views on Internal and External Sources
 Because DuPont and Olin had different broad corporate views of
outsourcing, they took different approaches to the use of external sources to
support their remediation efforts. DuPont was uncomfortable using external
sources. For example, it retained responsibility in house for designing the rail
cars it uses to transport hazardous chemicals. So it is not surprising that it
maintained its own in-house DuPont Environmental Remediation Services to
produce design and construction services. Olin's routine use of external
sources to process bulk chemicals made it much more comfortable with
outsourcing. It relied heavily on contractors for legal, design, analysis,
assessment, and construction services. It developed careful arrangements to
limit the liability that external sources might present. Olin maintained short
lists of preferred providers for remediation services and planned to shorten
the list so that it could develop closer relationships with a few strategic
partners. It chose these providers carefully, even considering their
relationships with regional Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) offices.
Olin preferred on-site disposal, but gave special attention to offsite providers.
To discourage use of many of these, Olin was considering financial
incentives to charge business units for using such disposal.

SLIDES
 Example 12
Ford: Environmental Performance Targets in
the Business Plan
 Ford identified the following simple, clear,
concrete, quantitative environmental
performance targets to include in its 1998
Manufacturing Business Plan:
 1. certify all manufacturing plants worldwide to
ISO 14001 by the end of 1998 2. use 90 percent
of returnable containers in facilities by 2001 3.
reduce paint shop emissions by 60 g/m2 by 2005
4. phase out all polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)
transformers by 2010 5. reduce energy usage by
1 percent per year.

SLIDES
 USE CROSS-FUNCTIONAL TEAMS FOR
SPECIFIC DECISIONS, PROJECTS, AND
PROCESSES
 DEVELOP TOOLS TO IDENTIFY FIRMWIDE
EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTALLY RELATED
ACTIVITIES

SLIDES
 Example 14
DuPont: Corporate Remediation Group
 DuPont's Corporate Remediation Group brought together staff
formerly located in its Legal and Engineering Departments with
staff from individual remediation sites. This new group included
cross-functional skills in program management, remediation
technologies, and remediation regulations. DuPont's senior
leadership expected this structure to focus remediation policies
and actions more clearly on DuPont's strategic goals, provide
uniform policies throughout the company and effective
accountability for their implementation, integrate the disciplines
that DuPont had available to address remediation, track total
remediation-related costs more effectively and make them more
visible, take moreeffective advantage of advice from contractors,
and improve communication of lessons learned on best practices.
As the leadership had also expected, such a central organization
helped effect what the leaders considered to be a major change in
organizational direction.

SLIDES
 Example 16
Volvo: Environmental Priorities Strategies System
 Volvo's Environmental Priorities Strategies system
comprised a methodology and database that together
provided decision support for designers. It could reduce
very complex information, if desired, to a single number
that designers could use to support specific design
decisions. It established goals for life-cycle analysis,
documented an inventory of life-cycle environmental
impacts, measured the effects of these impacts on
human health and the environment, and calculated a
single number that designers could use to support trade-
offs. These designers could apply the system quickly and
easily to weigh alternatives.

SLIDES
 BALANCE CENTRALIZATION AND
DECENTRALIZATION

SLIDES
 Example 18
DuPont and Olin: Centralized Remediation Programs
 DuPont and Olin sought to place financial and
management responsibility with the business unit that
creates a problem. When relevant state and local
regulations varied, it was often better to place relevant
responsibilities with local units. But this had to be
balanced with the visibility and control of costs and
funding and the consistent application of policy that
central assignment of responsibility supports. On
balance, DuPont and Olin chose to centralize remediation
responsibilities. Taking responsibility away from the
active product units allowed them to focus on
environmental issues relevant to current and future
production. That said, to ensure that its 19 individual
business units maintained some awareness that
remediation costs money, DuPont taxed these business
units to cover 35 percent of ongoing remediation costs.

SLIDES
 CENTRAL IMPLEMENTATION
CHALLENGE 1:
THERE ARE NO SILVER BULLETS
WHEN EVERY
SITUATION IS DIFFERENT

SLIDES
 Example 19
Volvo: Views on Affecting Automobile
Environmental Performance
 Volvo found that environmental issues play a part in
roughly 35 overall attributes relevant to the design of an
automobile—for example, weight, air resistance, and
rolling resistance. These issues were the only concerns
relevant to emission and recycling rates; they were very
important to the consideration of materials and fuel
consumption. Volvo could ensure that its automobile
designs properly reflected corporate environmental
concerns only by directly affecting the decisions of the
individual designers who chose the values of attributes in
any new design. Success lay entirely in affecting
individual or team decisions.

SLIDES
 Example 20
DuPont: Aligning Environmental Concerns with Business
Priorities
 At DuPont, aligning environmental concerns with business priorities
meant bringing a traditional business perspective to bear on
environmental issues. This perspective demands flexibility, creativity,
innovation, and team-building to get things done. In particular, it does
not view regulations as fixed in stone. Working from a clear set of
goals on how to protect human health and the environment, DuPont
sought cost-effective approaches to pursue these goals, even if
current regulations did not immediately permit these approaches.
DuPont relied on constant application of peer-reviewed science and
careful management of its relationships with regulators to build its
case and constantly question the status quo. The environmental
champion coordinated this effort, which is why DuPont preferred a
manager with an exemplary business background in a core product
area, rather than an environmental specialist, to be the champion.

SLIDES
 MOTIVATE CREATIVE AND
PERSISTENT CHANGE AGENTS
 ASSIGN RESPONSIBILITIES CLEARLY
THROUGHOUT THE
FIRM
 DESIGN METRICS TO MOTIVATE THE
RIGHT BEHAVIOR

SLIDES
 Example 23
Hewlett-Packard: Guidelines for Developing Metrics
 HP used the following guidelines to develop metrics:
 1. They should be simple and easy to use. 2. They
should be strategically relevant and empirically based on
HP experience. 3. Product designers should be able to
influence them. 4. They should provide a starting point,
not a full-blown solution; they should mature with
experience.

SLIDES
 USE INCENTIVES TO MOTIVATE THE
RIGHT BEHAVIOR
 MANAGE FAILURES TO LIMIT
DISINCENTIVES FOR RISK-
TAKING
 EMPOWER EMPLOYEES WITH
FORMAL TRAINING

SLIDES
 Example 26
Volvo: Environmental Training Program
 Volvo believed it necessary to change attitudes to
promote improved environmental performance for its
products. It used a program called Volvo Dialogue to
train all employees, dealers, and suppliers worldwide.
Training occurred in stages, starting in house in Sweden
and moving out. Session 1 scared and shocked
attendees to get their attention. In Session 2, a Volvo
employee trained his or her colleagues on how
transportation affects the environment worldwide. In
Session 3, a Volvo employee finally trained attendees on
Volvo's role in the environment. Volvo monitored
progress and had empirical evidence that this training
program, the largest in its history, was achieving the
results sought.

SLIDES
 DEVELOP A SUPPORTIVE
ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT FOR
TOOLS
 COMMUNICATE CONTINUOUSLY IN
ALL DIRECTIONS
 MANAGE RELATIONSHIPS WITH
STAKEHOLDERS

SLIDES
 BENCHMARK TO PROMOTE
CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT

SLIDES
 CENTRAL IMPLEMENTATION
CHALLENGE 2:
RADICAL ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
TAKES A
LONG TIME

SLIDES
 USE FORMAL QUALITY
FRAMEWORKS TO
IMPLEMENT AN INTEGRATION POLICY

SLIDES
 Example 34
Ford and IBM: Choosing Third-Party Registration to ISO 14001
 Unlike many other large, U.S. industrial firms, Ford and IBM both decided to
use ISO 14001, not only as a template against which to benchmark their
preexisting environmental management systems but also as a certificate to
verify to potential customers their level of environmental responsibility. Both
agreed to do this for similar reasons:
 1. Many of their customers, particularly in Europe and East Asia, appeared
likely to favor such certification. 2. Given the sophistication of their
preexisting environmental management systems, moving to full registration
against the standard was unlikely to be terribly difficult. That said, Ford
estimated that it spent $220,000 for training and 5,600 hours of employee
time for meetings, training, and audits to register one engine manufacturing
plant. At the same time, despite the sophistication of the baseline
environmental management system at that site, the new system based on
ISO 14001 supported large, immediate improvements in water use, solid
waste generation, and use of returnable packaging. Early gap analysis
identified several places where ISO 14001 would improve the effectiveness
and efficiency of IBM's preexisting environmental management system and
further integrate environmental considerations around the company. These
gains may not have occurred without third-party registration.

SLIDES
ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT AND
LAW

SLIDES
Role of Law
 Law should provide a framework for regulating
use of the environment (Harte, 1992;
McEldowney, 1996; Bell, 1997) (Box 7.1). Law is
crucial for environmental management in a
number of ways, aiding:
 ♦ regulation of resource use;
 ♦ protection of the environment and biodiversity;
 ♦ mediation, conflict resolution and conciliation;
 ♦ formulation of stable, unambiguous
undertakings and agreements.

SLIDES
Benefits of Legislation
 Most legislation evolves in response to problems, so
there is often delay between need and the establishment
of satisfactory law. Without effective legislation, resource
use, pollution control, conservation, and most fields of
human activity are likely to fall into chaos and conflict.
Law can encourage satisfactory performance, enable
authorities to punish those who infringe environmental
management legislation, or confiscate equipment that is
misused or faulty, or close a company; it may also be
possible for employees, bystanders and product or
service users to sue for damages if they are harmed.

SLIDES
Three things are especially important for
environmental legislation
 1 The precautionary principle, which has evolved to deal with risks and uncertainties
faced by environmental management (Rogers et al., 1997). The meaning is still not
firmly established by law.
 The principle implies that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure—it does
not prevent problems but may reduce their occurrence and helps ensure contingency
plans are made (Mitchell, 1997:80).
 The application of this principle requires either cautious progress until a development
can be judged ‘innocent’, or avoiding development until research indicates exactly
what the risks are, and then proceeding to minimize them. Once a threat is identified,
action should be taken to prevent or control damage even if there is uncertainty about
whether the threat is real. Some environmental problems become impossible or
costly to solve if there is delay, so waiting for research and legal proof is not costless.
 Some hold that the principle should be applied in situations where both the
probability and cost of impacts are unknown. The principle was stressed in many of
the decisions reached at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992. For example, it was endorsed
by Article 15 of the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
(Freestone, 1994:209-211). Article 130r of the Maastricht Treaty (Treaty on European
Union) of February 1992 states that EU policy on the environment shall be based on
the precautionary principle.

SLIDES
 2 The polluter-pays principle—in addition to the obvious—the polluter
pays for damage caused by a development—this principle also
implies that a polluter pays for monitoring and policing. A problem
with this approach is that fines may bankrupt small businesses, yet
be low enough for a large company to write them off as an
occasional overhead, which does little for pollution control. There is
debate as to whether the principle should be retrospective—e.g.
today a purchaser who acquires contaminated land in good faith is
often forced to clean up the mess others left (if the polluter pays, how
long back does liability stretch?). Developing countries are seeking
to have developed countries pay more for carbon dioxide controls,
arguing that they polluted the world during the Industrial Revolution,
yet enjoy the fruits of invention from that era.
 The polluter-pays principle is more a way of allocating costs to the
polluter than a legal principle. OECD member countries adopted the
principle in 1972, at least in theory (OECD, 1975).

SLIDES
 3 Freedom of information—if the public, NGOs (‘green
watchdogs’) or even official bodies are unable to get
information, environmental planning and management is
hindered. Democracies have begun to release more
information—the USA has a Freedom of Information Act,
the EU is moving in that direction, and in the UK the
(1994) Environmental Protection Act has helped. Few
countries have such well-developed disclosure as the
USA, which requires public registers of development
activities, publication of Environmental Impact
Statements, hazard warning on products, etc. Some
governments and multinational corporations fear
industrial secrets will leak to competitors if there is too
much disclosure, and there are situations where
authorities declare ‘strategic’ needs and suspend
disclosure.

SLIDES
EU Law on Environment
 Since 1993 EU law has been enacted to support more
freedom of environmental information, better standard
setting, the precautionary principle, and the polluter-pays
principle; Winter (1996:277) has listed the core
objectives:
 ♦ preserve, protect and improve the quality of the
environment.
 ♦ protect human health.
 ♦ prudent and rational use of natural resources.
 ♦ promote measures at international level to deal with
regional or world-wide environmental problems.

SLIDES
International law and
 International law governs relations between states, and has no direct
effect on domestic law or individuals. It is often difficult to force a
sovereign state to sign, and then honour, a treaty or similar
agreement. International law must thus depend a great deal on
voluntary agreements by governments and international bodies (the
Brussels and Lugano Conventions on Environmental Law cover this
issue of ensuring compliance) (Székely, 1990a; 1990b). When
negotiation fails a possibility is to refer the case to the International
Court of Justice (The Hague) (not a very friendly process), or set up
an International Joint Commission. International law has tended to
be laissez-faire and ad hoc (Birnie and Boyle, 1992).

SLIDES
Agreements made at the Earth
Summit, 1992
 ♦ Rio Declaration on Environment and Development updated version of the Stockholm
Declaration (of 1972); published general principles for future international action on
environment and development.
 ♦ Framework Convention on Climate Change framework for negotiation of detailed
protocols to deal with control of greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, sea-level
change, etc.
 ♦ Convention on Biological Diversity intended to arrest alarming rate of species loss
(criticized for having been poorly and hurriedly drafted).
 ♦ Declaration on Forests a principle, not legally binding, this was substituted for
original idea of a Forest Convention.
 ♦ Agenda 21 an action plan for the rest of the century and framework for dealing with
environment and development issues. Consists of 40 chapters (not a legally binding
instrument).
 ♦ Global Environmental Facility a fund established for global problem-solving. Under
the auspices of the World Bank, UNEP and UNDP. Designed to be ‘democratic and
transparent’ and helpful to poor nations. Amongst other things, intended to support
Biodiversity and Climate Change Conventions.

SLIDES
International law and sovereignty
issues
 Sovereignty affects access to data and monitoring, and
can be a major constraint on environmental
management. Countries are usually reluctant to sign any
agreement which affects their sovereign powers. Yet
growing transboundary and global environmental
problems make it important to get co-operation. There
are transnational and multinational corporations
sufficiently powerful to threaten and bribe their way
around sovereignty and other controls. Terrorism can
have transnational or global impact, so there should be
better international controls and co-operation to counter
it. Unfortunately for many environmental management
issues, getting multi-state agreements is a slow process

SLIDES
The Stockholm Declaration
 In 1977 the Stockholm Declaration on the
Human Environment affirmed the sovereign right
of states to exploit their own resources and their
responsibility to ensure that activities within their
jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to
the environment beyond the limits of their
national jurisdiction (Stockholm Principle 21).
This affirmation has had considerable influence
on subsequent international environmental law
making (Birnie and Boyle, 1992:90).

SLIDES
A selection of treaties,
agreements, etc., relating to
 Internationally shared resources
 In 1972 the USA and Canada signed the Great Lakes Transboundary Agreement for
the comprehensive management of the water quality of the Great Lakes.
 Protection of endangered species
 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. 1973 Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). 1979 Bern Convention on the
Conservation of European Wildlife.
 Protection of environmentally important areas
 There are many areas agreed by scientists, social scientists and other specialists to
be in need of formal protection. Protection may be supported by a state; privately
funded by a group or individual; or by an international body or bodies. For example,
there is a worldwide scatter of Biosphere Reserves; the UK has state-protected Sites
of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs); many countries have reserves and national
parks. Some conservation areas are established and watched over by international
treaty—the 1971 Ramsar Convention (Convention on Wetlands of International
Importance) provides a framework for protection of wetland habitats, especially those
used by migrating birds. The UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) supports and oversees many sites of special cultural value.

SLIDES
Ozone damage controls
 Efforts to phase out and if possible ban the use of CFCs were made
at the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone
Layer. The 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the
Ozone Layer—revised 1990—derives from the Vienna Convention.
The protocol aimed for a 50 per cent cut in CFCs over a short period
(24, mainly developed nations signed—by 1994 this had increased
to 74, including some developing countries) and was signed in the
face of considerable uncertainty about ozone damage. The protocol
is a landmark, in that for the first time nations agreed to impose
significant costs on their economies in order to protect the global
environment. India and China held out, seeking agreement for
funding to assist with ozone controls.

SLIDES
The Law of the Sea
 In 1954 the International Convention for the Prevention

of Pollution from Ships was undertaken to try to reduce
the discharge of waste oil from oil-tankers and other
ship-related discharges (with limited success). For ocean
pollution control to be effective, agreements that cover
rivers, effluent outfalls, air pollution, etc. are required,
because pollutants arrive in the sea from such sources
(Boyle, 1992). In 1958 the First Conference on Law of
the Sea took place (the second was in 1960), and in
1959 the UN established the International Maritime
Organization to deal with marine safety, law, pollution
control, etc.

SLIDES
Alternative dispute resolution
 1 through legal measures (judicial);
 2 through political measures;
 3 through administrative measures;
 4 through alternative dispute resolution
measures (which may not use law).

SLIDES
 Legal measures rely upon courts, litigation, protocols and
procedures, etc. Political measures rely upon elected or
established representatives to decide. Administrative
measures can be used to improve resources and
environmental management. Alternative dispute
resolution can be through a range of measures,
including:
 ♦ negotiation;
 ♦ mediation;
 ♦ arbitration;
 ♦ public consultation.

SLIDES

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Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

 Damage to the environment can be a

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Cropland (ha) 0.71a 0.08c 0.27e

Oil equivalents (litres) 8,740b 700d 1,500f

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Africa 2,965 184 792 688 1,301

N. America 2,139 274 368 684 813

S. America 1,753 140 468 905 240

Asia 2,679 450 678 541 1,010

Europe 473 140 84 157 92

Total 10,009 1,188 2,390 2,975 3,456

100% 12% 24% 30% 34%

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Total consumption 93.97a 381.13

Petroleum 33.71a 136.17b

Natural gas 20.81a 75.15b

Coal 19.43a 87.60b

Nuclear power 6.52a 22.10b

Biomass 6.80a 28.50d

Hydroelectric power 3.00c 23.81b

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH

Shanath Kumar-KIAMS EM X BATCH