UNIT-I

CAPACITANCE
t
q Cv qt i t dt qt0
t0

t
dv
v t i t dt v t0
iC 1
dt C t0
Capacitance of the Parallel-Plate
Capacitor
A
C A WL
d
12
0 8.85 10 Fm

r 0
INDUCTANCE

v t L
di
dt
t
i t v t dt i t0
1
L t0

wt Li t
1 2
2
 Electrical Current

Electrical current is the time rate of flow of

electrical charge through a conductor or
circuit element. The units are amperes (A),
which are equivalent to coulombs per
second (C/s).
Electrical Current

dq(t )
i (t )
dt
t
q(t ) i (t )dt q(t0 )
t0
 Direct Current
Alternating Current

When a current is constant with time, we

say that we have direct current,
abbreviated as dc. On the other hand, a
current that varies with time, reversing
direction periodically, is called alternating
current, abbreviated as ac.
.
 Voltages

The voltage associated with a circuit

element is the energy transferred per unit
of charge that flows through the element.
The units of voltage are volts (V), which are
equivalent to joules per coulomb (J/C).
POWER AND ENERGY

p(t ) v (t )i (t )
t2

w p(t )dt
t1
 KIRCHHOFFS CURRENT LAW

The net current entering a node is zero.

Alternatively, the sum of the currents

entering a node equals the sum of the
currents leaving a node.
 KIRCHHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW

The algebraic sum of the voltages equals

zero for any closed path (loop) in an
electrical circuit.
Resistors and Ohms Law
a

v iR
b
vab iab R
Conductance

1
G
R
i Gv
Resistance Related to Physical
Parameters

L
R
A
Circuit Analysis using Series/Parallel
Equivalents
1. Begin by locating a combination of
resistances that are in series or parallel.
Often the place to start is farthest from
the source.
2. Redraw the circuit with the equivalent
resistance for the combination found in
step 1.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 until the circuit is
reduced as far as possible. Often (but not
always) we end up with a single source and
a single resistance.

4. Solve for the currents and voltages in the

final equivalent circuit.
Voltage Division
R1
v1 R1i v total
R1 R2 R3

R2
v2 R2 i v total
R1 R2 R3
Application of the Voltage-
Division Principle
R1
v1 vtotal
R1 R2 R3 R4
1000
15
1000 1000 2000 6000
1.5V
Current Division
v R2
i1 itotal
R1 R1 R2
v R1
i2 itotal
R2 R1 R2
Application of the Current-
Division Principle

R2 R3 30 60
Req 20
R2 R3 30 60
Req 20
i1 is 15 10A
R1 Req 10 20
 Although they are very
important concepts,
series/parallel equivalents and
the current/voltage division
principles are not sufficient to
solve all circuits.
Node Voltage Analysis
 Writing KCL Equations in
Terms of the Node Voltages for
Figure 2.16

v1 v s
v2 v1 v2 v2 v3
0
R2 R4 R3

v3 v1 v3 v3 v2
0
R1 R5 R3
v1 v1 v2
is 0
R1 R2

v2 v1 v2 v2 v3
0
R2 R3 R4
v3 v3 v 2
is
R5 R4
Circuits with Voltage Sources

We obtain dependent
equations if we use all of the
nodes in a network to write
KCL equations.
v1 v1 15 v2 v2 15
0
R2 R1 R4 R3
 v1 10 v2 0

v1 v1 v3 v2 v 3
1
R1 R2 R3
v3 v1 v3 v 2 v3
0
R2 R3 R4
v1 v3
1
R1 R4
Node-Voltage Analysis with a
Dependent Source

First, we write KCL equations at

each node, including the current
of the controlled source just as if
it were an ordinary current
source.
v1 v 2
is 2i x
R1

v2 v1 v2 v2 v 3
0
R1 R2 R3
v3 v 2 v3
2i x 0
R3 R4
Next, we find an expression for the
controlling variable ix in terms of the
node voltages.

v3 v 2
ix
R3
Substitution yields
v1 v2 v3 v 2
is 2
R1 R3

v2 v1 v2 v2 v 3
0
R1 R2 R3

v3 v 2 v3 v3 v 2
2 0
R3 R4 R3
 Node-Voltage Analysis
1. Select a reference node and
assign variables for the unknown
node voltages. If the reference
node is chosen at one end of an
independent voltage source, one
node voltage is known at the
start, and fewer need to be
computed.
2. Write network equations. First, use
KCL to write current equations for
nodes
and supernodes. Write as many current
equations as you can without using all
of
the nodes. Then if you do not have
enough equations because of voltage
sources
connected between nodes, use KVL to
write additional equations.
3. If the circuit contains dependent
sources, find expressions for the
controlling variables in terms of the
node voltages. Substitute into the
network equations, and obtain
equations having only the node
voltages as unknowns.
4. Put the equations into standard form
and solve for the node voltages.

5. Use the values found for the node

voltages to calculate any other
currents or voltages of interest.
Mesh Current Analysis
 Choosing the Mesh
Currents

When several mesh currents flow through

one element, we consider the current in
that element to be the algebraic sum of
the mesh currents.
 Writing Equations to Solve
for Mesh Currents

If a network contains only resistances

and independent voltage sources, we
can write
the required equations by following each
current around its mesh and applying
KVL.
Using this pattern for mesh 1 of Figure
2.32a, we have
R2 i1 is R3 i1 i2 v A 0

For mesh 2, we obtain

R3 i2 i1 R4i2 v B 0

For mesh 3, we have

R2 i3 i1 R1i3 vB 0
In Figure 2.32b

R1i1 R2 i1 i4 R4 i1 i2 v A 0

R5i2 R4 i2 i1 R6 i2 i3 0

R7i3 R6 i3 i2 R8 i3 i4 0

R3i4 R2 i4 i1 R8 i4 i3 0
 Mesh Currents in Circuits
Containing Current Sources
A common mistake made by beginning
students is to assume that the voltages
across current sources are zero. In
Figure 2.35, we have:

i1 2A
10(i2 i1 ) 5i2 10 0
Combine meshes 1 and 2 into a supermesh. In other words, we write a KVL
equation around the periphery of meshes 1 and 2 combined.

i1 2i1i3 4i2 i3 10 0
Mesh 3:

3i3 4i3 i2 2i3 i1 0

i2 i1 5
 20 4i1 6i2 2i2 0

vx
i2 i1
4

v x 2i2
 Mesh-Current Analysis

1. If necessary, redraw the network

without crossing conductors or elements.
Then define the mesh currents flowing
around each of the open areas defined
by the network. For consistency, we
usually select a clockwise direction for
each of the mesh currents, but this is not
a requirement.
2. Write network equations, stopping after
the number of equations is equal to the
number of mesh currents. First, use KVL
to write voltage equations for meshes that
do not contain current sources. Next, if
any current sources are present, write
expressions for their currents in terms of
the mesh currents. Finally, if a current
source is common to two meshes, write a
KVL equation for the supermesh.
3. If the circuit contains dependent
sources, find expressions for the
controlling
variables in terms of the mesh currents.
Substitute into the network equations,
and obtain equations having only the
mesh currents as unknowns.
4. Put the equations into standard form.
Solve for the mesh currents by use of
determinants or other means.

5. Use the values found for the mesh

currents to calculate any other currents
or voltages of interest.
Thvenin Equivalent
Circuits
Thvenin Equivalent
Circuits
Vt voc

voc
Rt
isc
 Finding the Thvenin
Resistance Directly
When zeroing a voltage source, it becomes
an open circuit. When zeroing a current
source, it becomes a short circuit.

We can find the Thvenin resistance by

zeroing the sources in the original network
and then computing the resistance between
the terminals.
 Step-by-step
Thvenin/Norton-
Equivalent-Circuit
1. Perform two of these:
Analysis
a. Determine the open-circuit voltage Vt = voc.
b. Determine the short-circuit current In =
isc.
c. Zero the sources and find the Thvenin
resistance Rt looking back into the
terminals.
2. Use the equation Vt = Rt In to compute
the remaining value.

3. The Thvenin equivalent consists of a

voltage source Vt in series with Rt .

4. The Norton equivalent consists of a

current source In in parallel with Rt .
Source Transformations
 Maximum Power Transfer

The load resistance that absorbs the

maximum power from a two-terminal
circuit is equal to the Thvenin
resistance.
 SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE

The superposition principle states

that the total response is the sum of
the responses to each of the
independent sources acting
individually. In equation form, this is
rT r1 r2 rn