Physiology of circulation system

Dr. Dini Sri Damayanti,MKes

 The Blood Vessels

The cardiovascular system has three types of

blood vessels:
Arteries (and arterioles) carry blood away
from the heart
Capillaries where nutrient and gas
exchange occur
Veins (and venules) carry blood toward the
heart.
Blood vessels
 The Arteries
Arteries and arterioles take blood away
from the heart.
The largest artery is the aorta.
The middle layer of an artery wall
consists of smooth muscle that can
constrict to regulate blood flow and
blood pressure.
Arterioles can constrict or dilate,
changing blood pressure.
 The Capillaries
Capillaries have walls only one cell thick to
allow exchange of gases and nutrients with
tissue fluid.
Capillary beds are present in all regions of the
body but not all capillary beds are open at the
same time.
Contraction of a sphincter muscle closes off a
bed and blood can flow through an
arteriovenous shunt that bypasses the
capillary bed.
Anatomy of a capillary bed
 The Veins
Venules drain blood from capillaries, then
join to form veins that take blood to the
heart.
Veins have much less smooth muscle and
connective tissue than arteries.
Veins often have valves that prevent the
backward flow of blood when closed.
Veins carry about 70% of the bodys
blood and act as a reservoir during
hemorrhage.
 The Vascular Pathways
The cardiovascular system includes two
circuits:
1) Pulmonary circuit which circulates
blood through the lungs, and
2) Systemic circuit which circulates blood
to the rest of the body.
3) Both circuits are vital to homeostasis.
Cardiovascular system diagram
 The Pulmonary Circuit
The pulmonary circuit begins with the
pulmonary trunk from the right ventricle
which branches into two pulmonary arteries
that take oxygen-poor blood to the lungs.
In the lungs, oxygen diffuses into the blood,
and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood
to be expelled by the lungs.
Four pulmonary veins return oxygen-rich
blood to the left atrium.
 The Systemic Circuit
The systemic circuit starts with the aorta
carrying O2-rich blood from the left
ventricle.
The aorta branches with an artery going to
each specific organ.
Generally, an artery divides into arterioles
and capillaries which then lead to venules.
 The vein that takes blood to the vena cava
often has the same name as the artery that
delivered blood to the organ.
In the adult systemic circuit, arteries carry
blood that is relatively high in oxygen and
relatively low in carbon dioxide, and veins
carry blood that is relatively low in oxygen and
relatively high in carbon dioxide.
This is the reverse of the pulmonary circuit.
 Blood Flow
The beating of the heart is necessary to
homeostasis because it creates pressure
that propels blood in arteries and the
arterioles.
Arterioles lead to the capillaries where
nutrient and gas exchange with tissue
fluid takes place.
 Blood Flow in Arteries
Blood pressure due to the pumping of the
heart accounts for the flow of blood in the
arteries.
Systolic pressure is high when the heart
expels the blood.
Diastolic pressure occurs when the heart
ventricles are relaxing.
Both pressures decrease with distance from
the left ventricle because blood enters more
and more arterioles and arteries.
Cross-sectional area as it relates to
blood pressure and velocity
 Blood Flow in Capillaries

Blood moves slowly in capillaries

because there are more capillaries than
arterioles.
This allows time for substances to be
exchanged between the blood and
tissues.
 Blood Flow in Veins
Venous blood flow is dependent upon:
1) skeletal muscle contraction,
2) presence of valves in veins, and
3) respiratory movements.
Compression of veins causes blood to
move forward past a valve that then
prevents it from returning backward.
 Changes in thoracic and abdominal pressure
that occur with breathing also assist in the
return of blood.
Varicose veins develop when the valves of
veins become weak.
Hemorrhoids (piles) are due to varicose veins
in the rectum.
Phlebitis is inflammation of a vein and can
lead to a blood clot and possible death if the
clot is dislodged and is carried to a pulmonary
vessel.
 Blood pressure (BP)
A constant flow of blood is necessary to
transport oxygen to the cells of the body
The arteries maintain an average blood
pressure of around 90 mmHg
This helps push the blood from the arteries
into the capillaries
In the capillaries, oxygen transfers from the
blood to the cells
 Systole and Diastole
The arteries fluctuate between a state of
systole and diastole
In systole, the pressure in the arteries
increases as the heart pumps blood into the
arterial system
As the pressure increases, the elastic walls of
the arteries stretch
This can be felt as a pulse in certain arteries
 Systole and Diastole
In diastole, the recoil of the elastic arteries
forces blood out of the arterial system into
the capillaries
The pressure in the arteries falls as blood
leaves the system
Minimum diastolic pressure is typically 70-80
mmHg
Maximum systolic pressure is typically 110-
120 mmHg
 Factors affecting ABP:

Sex M > F due to hormones/ equal at menopause.

Age Elderly > children due to atherosclerosis.
Emotions due to secretion of adrenaline & noradrenaline.
Exercise due to venous return.
Hormones (e.g. Adrenaline, noradrenaline, thyroid H).
Gravity Lower limbs > upper limbs.
Race Orientals > Westerns ? dietry factors, or weather.
Sleep due to venous return.
Pregnancy due to metabolism.
 Factors determining ABP:

Blood Pressure = Cardiac Output X Peripheral

Resistance
(BP) (CO) (PR)
Flow Diameter of
arterioles

BP depends on:
1. Cardiac output CO = SV X HR.
2. Peripheral resistance.
3. Blood volume.
More cells constriction of blood
vessel walls
 Regulation of ABP:

Maintaining B.P. is important to ensure a steady blood

flow (perfusion) to tissues.
B.P. is regulated neurally through centers in medulla
oblongata:
1. Vasomotor Center (V.M.C.), or (pressor area):
Sympathetic fibers.
2. Cardiac Inhibitory Center (C.I.C.), or (depressor area):
Parasympathetic fibers (vagus).
 Regulation of ABP (continued)
cardiac control centers in medulla oblongata

1. Cardiacaccelerator 2. Cardiacinhibitory
center center
(V.M.C) (C.I.C)

Sympathetic n. fibers Parasympathetic n. fibers

Regulatory mechanisms depend on:
a. Fast acting reflexes:
Concerned by controlling CO (SV, HR), & PR.
b. Long-term mechanism:
Concerned mainly by regulating the blood volume.
 Regulation of CO:

A fast acting mechanism.

CO regulation depends on the regulation of:

a. Stroke volume, &

b. Heart rate
 Regulation Of COP
COP = SV X HR

HR : Sympatic /parasympatic
SV : Venous return, Contractility
A fast acting mechanism.
Controlled by 3 mechanisms:
neural, local, and hormonal
Neural : sympatic or parasympatic activity
Local factors : consentrasion of CO2, O2,
and p H
Hormonal : norepinefrin, estrogen, angiotensin
II, vasopresin
 Baroreceptors
How does the body know that there has been
a fall in blood pressure?
Baroreceptors on the aorta and carotid artery
respond to falls in BP
They send signals to the cardiovascular
centre in the brain stem medulla
The medulla sends signals along the
sympathetic nerves to the arterioles and
heart, increasing SVR and cardiac output
 1. Baroreceptors reflex:

Baroreceptors are receptors found in carotid sinus &

aortic arch.
Are stimulated by changes in BP.
BP

+ Baroreceptors

= V.M.C ++ C.I.C

= Sympathetic + Parasympathetic

Vasodilatation & TPR Slowing of SA node ( HR)

& CO
 2. Chemoreceptors reflex:

Chemoreceptors are receptors found in carotid &

aortic bodies.
Are stimulated by chemical changes in blood mainly
hypoxia ( O2), hypercapnia ( CO2), & pH changes.
Haemorrhage BP
Hypoxia

+ Chemoreceptors
++ V.M.C = C.I.C

+ Sympathetic = Parasympathetic
+ Adrenal
medulla
Vasoconstriction HR
& TPR
 3. Other Vasomotor Reflexes:

1. Atrial stretch receptor reflex:

Venous Return ++ atrial stretch
receptors reflex vasodilatation & BP.
2. Thermoreceptors: (in skin/or hypothalamus)
Exposure to heat vasodilatation.
Exposure to cold vasoconstriction.
3. Pulmonary receptors:
Lung inflation vasoconstriction.
 4. Hormonal Agents:

NA vasoconstriction.
A vasoconstriction (except in sk. ms.).
Angiotensin II vasoconstriction.
Vasopressin vasoconstriction.
Regulation of Arterial Blood Pressure

B. Regulation of Blood Volume

 Regulation of Blood Volume:

A long-term regulatory mechanism.

Mainly renal:
1. Renin-Angiotensin System.
2. Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), or
vasopressin.
3. Low-pressure volume receptors.
 1. Renin-Angiotensin System:

Most important mechanism for Na+ retention in

order to maintain the blood volume.

Any drop of renal blood flow &/or Na+, will

stimulate volume receptors found in juxtaglomerular
apparatus of the kidneys to secrete Renin which will
act on the Angiotensin System leading to production
of aldosterone.
 Renin-Angiotensin System:
renal blood flow &/or Na+

++ Juxtaglomerular apparatus of kidneys

(considered volume receptors)

Renin

Angiotensinogen Angiotensin I
Converting
(Lungs)
enzymes
Angiotensin III Angiotensin II
(powerful (powerful
vasoconstrictor) vasoconstrictor)
Adrenal
cortex
Aldosterone Corticosterone
N.B. Aldosterone is the main regulator of Na+ retention.
2. Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), or vasopressin:

Hypovolemia & dehydration will stimulate the

osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus, which will lead
to release of ADH from posterior pituitary gland.

ADH will cause water reabsorption at kidney tubules.

 3. Low-pressure volume receptors:

Atrial natriuritic peptide (ANP) hormone, is secreted

from the wall of right atrium to regulate Na+ excretion
in order to maintain blood volume.