Knoll CH 1 Rad Sources

Experimental Nuclear Physics
Department of Basic Sciences

Riphah International University
Islamabad
Ch 1 Knoll
Radiation Sources 1
RADIATION SOURCES
Origin of Radiation of Interest
Atomic or Nuclear
Classification of Sources
Radiation Type
Radiation Energy
Radiation Origin
Radiation Hardness
Ch 1 Knoll
Radiation Sources 2
Radiation Type
Charged particulate Uncharged radiation
radiation Electromagnetic
Fast Electrons Radiation
Beta Particles x-rays: emitted in the
(+ve or ve; emitted rearrangement of
from nuclear decay) electron shells
Energetic electrons -rays: originate from
produced by any other transitions within
process nucleus
Heavy Charged Neutrons; Generated in
Particles various nuclear
All energetic ions with processes
mass 1 amu Fast neutrons
Slow neutrons
Ch 1 Knoll
Radiation Sources 3
Radiation Energy Radiation Hardness
10 eV to 20 MeV Ability to penetrate
10 eV: min. energy Soft Radiation
required to produce
ionization Penetrate only small
thickness of material
(radiation is called
ionization radiation) Such as: particle, low
energy x rays
20 MeV: required for
fast energy reactions Thick sources
Self absorption
Radiation Nature Affect radiation
Laboratory Sources intensity and energy
Calibration and testing Hard radiation
of radiation detectors Penetrate large
Background Sources thickness of material,
Natural background such as: rays, high
Ch 1 Knoll energy neutrons
Radiation Sources 4
Radioactivity
Activity 1 Ci = 3.7x1010 dps
Rate of decay of a (estimate of the activity
of 1 g of 226Ra)
radioactive source
1 Bq = 1 dps
dN
N
dt decay Source disintegration
rate is not synonymous
N # of radioactive nuclei
with the emission rate of
decay constant radiation produced in its
Units decay
curie (Ci) Example 137Cs
becquerel (Bq) 100 disintegrations emit
85 gamma rays
Ch 1 Knoll
Radiation Sources 5
Specific Activity Energy of x & Rays
Activity per unit mass E=h
(Bq kg-1) h Planks constant
N N Av = 6.626x10-34 J s =
As
m NM M 4.135x10-15 eV s
frequency of x or
v
A
rays
M = Molecular mass of
the sample (g/mole) = c/ wave length
Av = Avogadros number
(atoms/mole) m

1.24 10
-6
Energy Units E eV
joule (J)
Electron Volt (eV)
1 eV = 1.602x10-19 J
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Radiation Sources 6
SOURCES/ORIGIN OF RADIATION
Radiation
Types
Charged
Uncharged
Particulate
Radiation
Radiation
Heavy Light Electro-

Charged Charged magnetic Neutrons
Particles Particles Radiation
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Radiation Sources 7
Light Charged Particle Sources
or Fast Electron
Sources Light
Charged
Particles
Internal
Beta Auger
Conversion
Decay Electrons
Electrons
Beta Beta Electron

Negative Positive capture
Ch 1 Knoll
Radiation Sources 8
Beta Decay
Decay
A
Z Z A1Y Q
X
+ Decay
A
Z Z A1Y Q
X
X Initial nuclear species

Y Final nuclear species
Anti-neutrino
Neutrino
Q Q-value of the
reaction
Ch 1 Knoll
Radiation Sources 9
Example
- decay:
1
0 n11p 10e
32
15 P
16
32
S 10 1.71 MeV
+ decay:
1
1 p01n10e
22
11 Na
10
22
Ne10 1.27 MeV
Ch 1 Knoll
Radiation Sources 10
Production of beta Half life of beta decay
active radionuclides process
Produced mostly in Few seconds to
nuclear reactors Million of years
214Po 164s,116In 54
1
0 n X
A
Z A1
Z Y Q
X A1 *
Z 1

min, 226Ra 1620 y,
A1 *
Z 1 ZA11Y
Y
Excited Daughter
1
n Co
59
Ni Q
Co 60 60 *
0 27 27 28
Decay by emission of
60
28 Ni*
28
60
Ni ( 1 1.17 MeV 2 1.32 MeV) rays Y *
Y
Ground state
No gamma emission
Pure emitters
Gamma emission takes place from the daughter nucleus in picoseconds

Half life of gamma is based on beta emission rate.
Ch 1 Knoll
Ch 1 Knoll
Beta Energy Spectrum
The decay energy (called
Q value) is shared
between decay products
P D b Q
mb mD
E D Q, E b Q
mP mP
Energy of recoil nucleus is
virtually zero, therefore
energy is shared between
and or End point energy Q value of the
Energy of varies from 0 reaction if parent and daughter are
to end point energy, in ground state
therefore the spectrum is
continuous
Ch 1 Knoll
INTERNAL CONVERSION ELECTRONS
Conversion Process
Nuclear excitation energy is
inhibited for emission
Excitation energy is transferred
directly to one of the orbital
electrons of the atom and
results in ejection of electron
from the shell
Probably due to wave nature of
electron in the atomic shells
A schematic picture of different ways to de-excite an atomic
nucleus. The nucleus can be de-excited by
-ray emission (1), but also by emitting a closely bound electron from the atom (2).
Usually a K-electron is emitted, but an electron in the L-shell (or a higher shell) can
also be emitted. The electron hole that appears will soon be filled by another electron.
This can result in the emission of an X-ray photon (3), or the emission of an Auger
electron (4).
14
IC electrons contd
Energy of Conversion Discrete Energy
Electron spectrum
Ee Eex Eb
Ee energy of internal
conversion electron
(keVMeV range)
Eex = nuclear excitation
energy
Eb = binding energy of
an electron in a shell
Energy is directly
proportional to Z No. of
the radionuclide
Ch 1 Knoll
IC electrons contd
Competitive Process
ray emission
Accompanied Process
Emission of
characteristic x rays
Emission of Auger
electrons
Example: 137Cs
85% cases emission
15% cases internal
conversion electron
Ch 1 Knoll
IC electrons contd
Ch 1 Knoll
AUGER ELECTRONS
Emission Process
An excited atom
transfers energy directly
to one of orbital
electrons of the atom
and results in the
ejection of electron from Energy
the atom A few keV
Self absorption
The process is
Spectrum
analogous to internal Discrete in energy
conversion process groups
Auger electron emission Competitive process
is favored only in low Z Emission of x rays
elements for which
18
binding energy is small
Heavy Charged Particle Sources
Alpha Decay Spontaneous Fission
Ch 1 Knoll
ALPHA DECAY
Decay Process
Alpha decay is a change Z
A
X A 4
Z 2Y 2 He ( ) Q
4
from the ground state of

an original nucleus to an where X and Y are the initial
excited or ground state of and final nuclear species.
a daughter nucleus with
the expulsion of an alpha 23892 U
234
90Th 2 4.2703 MeV
4
particle.
For each distinct transition
between initial and final
nucleus, a fixed energy
difference or Q-value
characterizes the decay.
Ch 1 Knoll
Alpha Decay contd
Alpha Particle Energy
The energy released in D Q
P
this change will be shared mD
as kinetic energy by the E Q
alpha particle and the
mP
recoiling daughter m
nucleus. ED Q
mP
Thus the fixed total kinetic
energy will always be split
between the alpha and
A
P
A 4
D Q
4
the daughter nucleus in

A4
the same way, depending E Q
on the mass of each. A
Ch 1 Knoll
Alpha particles are
Alpha Decay emitted with a unique
Since the total momentum single energy if there is
is initially zero, the alpha only one transition
particle and the daughter Alpha particles may
nucleus must move in appear in one or more
exactly opposite directions energy groups of
with the same magnitude monoenergetic particles
of momentum. Alpha particles appear in
groups with differing
Alpha particles appear with relative intensities if there
the unique energy are more than one energy
Energy of sources of transition
interest is limited mostly
between 4 6 MeV
Ch 1 Knoll
Alpha Decay
contd
Alpha particle groups produced
in the decay of 238Pu.
The pulse height spectrum
shows the three groups as
measured by a silicon surface
barrier detector.
Each peak is identified by its
energy in MeV and percent
abundance (in parentheses).
Ch 1 Knoll
Alpha Decay contd
Energy and half life
There is a very strong
correlation between alpha
particle energy and half-life of
the parent isotope, and those
with the highest energies are
those with the shortest halflife
Highest energy particles
are those with shortest T1/2
If E 6 MeV, then rapid
decay, a few days half life
If E 4 MeV, then slow
decay, very long half life
Ch 1 Knoll
Alpha Decay contd
Long lived sources Short lived sources
Specific activity is very Specific activity is very
small large
Self absorption of Source decays rapidly
particles within source Source is of no practical
material due to small use
energy
Source is of no practical
use
Ch 1 Knoll
Alpha Decay contd
Problem Solution
By simultaneously
conserving energy and E
A 4
Q
momentum, find the A
alpha-particle energy
emitted in the decay of A = 210
a nucleus with mass Q = 5.5 MeV
number 210 if the Q- E = 5.4 MeV
value of the decay is
5.50 MeV.
Ch 1 Knoll
SPONTANEOUS FISSION
Source of heavy
charged particles
Energetic charged
particles having mass
greater than particle
are produced only by
fission process
Application of sources
Calibration and testing
of detectors which are
used for heavy ion
measurements
Ch 1 Knoll
Spontaneous Fission contd
Spontaneous fission rates
Nuclide Half-life Fission Neutrons Neutrons
years prob. per per fission per gram-
decay second
235U 7.04x108 2.0x109 1.86 3.0x104
238U 4.47x109 5.4x107 2.07 0.0136
239Pu 2.41x104 4.4x1012 2.16 2.2x102
240Pu 6569 5.0x108 2.21 920
250Cm 8300 0.80 3.3 2.1x1010
252Cf 2.638 3.09x102 3.73 2.3x1012
Ch 1 Knoll
252Cf (Californium)
Most popular source
Spontaneous fission
decay is probable in
252
Lf H f n ' s ' s ' s
Cf
transuranic heavy 252
248Y ' s
Cf
nuclides
Fission process Half life
85 y for fission only
A
X ZA11Y * ZA22 Z * n ' s ' s ' s
2.65 y for decay
Z
A1
Z1 Y * ZA11Y ' s (effective half life)
A2
Z* A2
Z 's 1 microgram of 252Cf
emits 1.92x107 s /
Z2 Z2
sec and
undergoes 6.14x105
Sp. fissions / sec
Ch 1 Knoll
The dominant decay mechanism is alpha decay,

and the alpha emission rate is about 32 times
that for spontaneous fission
Emission direction
Emitted in opposite direction so as to conserve
momentum.
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Energy distribution
Fission energy 185 MeV mH
EL Ef
Asymmetric distribution 252
Light fragments: More energy mL
EH Ef
Heavy fragments: Less energy 252
252 108
EL 185
252
252 143
EH 185
252
Energy Spectrum is disturbed by self absorption
Ch 1 Knoll
The distribution in
kinetic energy of the
252Cf spontaneous
fission fragments.
The peak on the left
corresponds to the
heavy fragments,
and that on the right
to the light fragments.
Ch 1 Knoll
SOURCES OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Gamma rays following s following decay
decay Nucleus is left in excited
Annihilation radiation state after or decay

Gamma rays following X
Y*
nuclear reactions Excited nucleus de-
Bremsstrahlung excites to lower levels, as
(Braking radiation) a result rays are emitted
Characteristic X rays Y
Y*
Synchrotron Radiation
Common ray laboratory
sources
22Na, 57Co, 60Co, 137Cs
Ch 1 Knoll
contd
s following decay
Parent decay is a slow process:

H.L ~ 100s of days
Gamma emission is rapid process:
avg. life time ~ ps
Gamma is emitted by daughter but source is named
with parent
Gamma ray appear with a half life characteristic of
the parent beta decay
Ch 1 Knoll
Annihilation Radiation
Annihilation Process Spectrum
Positron is stopped in Gamma spectrum of
material, annihilates daughter is
with electron, and two superimposed with
photons are emitted in annihilation radiation
opposite direction 22Na decay
( e ) 0
0.511MeV

.511MeV 1.274 MeV is
accompanied with
0.511 MeV annihilation
+ decay is
photons
accompanied by
annihilation radiation
Ch 1 Knoll
Annihilation Radiation contd..

22
11 Na Ne 22
10
*
22
10
*
Ne (1.27 MeV )
Ne 22
10
( e )
0.511MeV 0.511MeV
1274 keV
Ch 1 Knoll
Gamma rays following nuclear
reactions
High Energy Gammas
Produced
Gamma rays of higher
energy than those of
source can be obtained
from nuclear reactions
4
2 49Be
129C * 01n
12
9 129C 4.44 MeV, 61 fs
C*
4
2 136C
168O* 01n
16
8 O*
168O 6.13 MeV, 2 10-11 s
Ch 1 Knoll
Bremsstrahlung
(Braking radiation)
Production Process Production intensity
Bremsstrahlung increases with an
(electromagnetic increase in
radiation) is produced Energy of electrons
by acceleration or Z No of target material
deceleration of charged Energy Spectrum
particles in matter Continuous
Explained by EM theory Can not be used for
This production is detector calibration
mainly due to Low energy yield is
interaction of electrons more
with matter
Ch 1 Knoll
Sources of Bremsstrahlung
Beta particles
Produced in beta source encapsulation
X ray machines
Produced due to stoppage of electrons
in target
X rays are superimposed on
bremsstrahlung
Ch 1 Knoll
Characteristic X rays
Photons liberated in Jumping of electrons
transition of an electron from higher shells to
from higher level to lower
energy level of an atom vacancy in L shell
are called X rays generate series of x
Ex-ray = Einitial state Efinal state rays called L series x
Jumping of electrons from rays
higher shells to vacancy M L L
in K shell generate series
of x rays called K series x N L L
rays O L L
L K K Energy
M K K
EL> EL > EL
N K K
Energy EK> EK > EK EK > EL
EK > EL
Ch 1 Knoll
X ray series
Ch 1 Knoll
Excitation
Mechanisms
Energy of X rays Excitation by
Because of more energy, K radioactive decay
series X rays are more
significant than other series Electron Capture
X rays Internal conversion
Energy is unique to each Excitation by
element external methods
Helps in elemental analysis Electrons (X ray
Competitive Process machines)
Emission of auger electrons Heavy charged
particles (
particles)
X or photons (X
ray fluorescence)
Ch 1 Knoll
Electron Capture
Capture of orbital
electron by nucleus is
called electron capture
a vacancy is left in an
atom shell that leads to
generation of
Accompanied
processes
1
1 p e n
0
1
1
1
Emission of rays from
newly excited nucleus
40
19 K 10e18
40
Ar
Inner Bremsstrahlung
Ch 1 Knoll
Internal Conversion
Internal conversion
electron leaves a
vacancy in atom shells
The vacancy filling
leads to production of
Accompanied
processes
Gamma rays from the
already excited nucleus
Bremsstrahlung due to
conversion electrons
Ch 1 Knoll
Excitation by External Heavy Charged Particle
Radiation Excitation
Energy of emitted X Heavy charged
rays depends upon particles ionize and
choice of material excite the atom as a
result characteristic x
Smaller is Z No. softer rays are produced
are x rays or vice versa
For compact sources,
Excitation by Electrons alpha emitting isotopes
X ray Machines are used for excitation
Fall of electron beam 239Pu and 244Cm have
on a target produce: sufficient half lives
Characteristic x rays
Bremsstrahlung
Ch 1 Knoll
Characteristic x rays contd
Ch 1 Knoll
X ray Fluorescence
Photoelectric excitation
by X or rays
De-excitation of atoms
gives
Characteristic x rays
Spectrum is
contaminated with
source X or rays
X ray excitation source
is X ray machine
ray excitation source
is low energy
radioisotopes e.g.
rays from
241Am (59.5 keV), 57Co
Ch 1 Knoll (14, 122, 136 keV)
Ch 1 Knoll
Ch 1 Knoll
Bending of energetic Source
electrons in a circular High energy
orbit generate EM accelerators
radiation called
Energy Range
Visible (a few eV)
through x rays (~ 104
eV)
Monoenergetic
photons are separated
by monochromates
Ch 1 Knoll
NEUTRON SOURCES
Radioisotope neutron Spontaneous Fission
sources are limited and Transuranic heavy
are not of practical metals have probability
importance of spontaneous fission
Neutron sources are Fission process
based on:
Spontaneous fission F1 F2 n' s ' s
X
252Cf source

Nuclear reactions ,
Radioisotope (,n)
Photoneutron (,n) Source Encapsulation
Accelerated Charged Encapsulated in thick
Particles containers
Ch 1 Knoll ns and s come out
252Cf
The most common Spontaneous fission

source, decay by scheme of 252Cf
Alpha emission
Spontaneous fission
Alpha emission
252
248 X 24
Cf
T 2.65 y
1 2
Spontaneous Fission
252
Cf T
1 2

85 y
F1 F2 n ' s ' s
Ch 1 Knoll
Radioisotope (,n) sources
Nuclear Reaction Common Sources
239Pu/Be, 241Am/Be,
4
2 Be
9
4 C n 12
6
* 1
0 244Cm/Be, 226Ra/Be
12
6 126C 4.44 MeV
C* Widely used source is
239Pu/Be, if choice is
M-Be Alloy available then

241Am/Be is preferred
Alpha emitters are
uniformly mixed with Be Choice of a source is
Alpha emitters of based on:
particle interest are availability, cost, size,
actinides that can and T1/2
easily be mixed with Be Short half life is
preferred to increase
Sp. Act. of emitter
Ch 1 Knoll
Characteristics of Be(,n) Neutron Sources
Ch 1 Knoll
Strength of the source
It is the activity of the
emitter not the number
of neutrons emitted
Source Encapsulation
Actinide-beryllium alloy
is sealed within two
individually stainless
steel cylinders.
Space is left for:
Expansion of material
Accumulation of He
gas
Ch 1 Knoll
Neutron Yield
Exponential decay in
yield with half life of
emitter
Increase in yield in
certain cases e.g
contamination of 239Pu
with 241Pu
1
241
Pu 241
Am
Ch 1 Knoll
Photoneutron (,n) sources
(,n) Reaction Main Disadvantage
Gamma rays are Large activity is needed to
absorbed by a material produce neutrons of relatively
and neutrons are emitted high intensity i.e. 1 n out of 105
106 s
9
4 Be h
49 Be 01n (-1.66 MeV) Gamma Emitters
2
1 H h 1
1
H 1
0 n (-2.226 MeV) 226Ra, 124Sb, 72Ga, 140La, 24Na
Endothermic reactions,
demand high energy
gamma rays
Advantages of (,n)
sources
monoenergetic neutrons
from monoenergetic s
Ch 1 Knoll
Ch 1 Knoll
Radiation Sources Dr. Muhammad Tufail (T.I., A.F., T,Bq) 58
ACCELERATOR SOURCES
DD Reaction These reactions are
widely exploited in
2
1 H 2
1 H
3
2 He 0 n Q 3.26 MeV
1
neutron generators
3 where D ion falls on D
En 3.26 3 MeV or T target
4
Other Reactions
DT Reaction 9Be(d,n), 9Li(p,n),
3H(p,n)
2
1 H 13H
24 He 01n Q 17.6 MeV
4
E n 17.6 14 MeV
5
Ch 1 Knoll

Knoll CH 1 Rad Sources

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Knoll CH 1 Rad Sources

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Experimental Nuclear Physics

Department of Basic Sciences

Heavy Light Electro-

Beta Beta Electron

X Initial nuclear species

Gamma emission takes place from the daughter nucleus in picoseconds

from the ground state of

the daughter nucleus in

The dominant decay mechanism is alpha decay,

Parent decay is a slow process:

The most common Spontaneous fission

M-Be Alloy available then

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