SHIP DESIGN II INFORMAL CLASSNOTE a Compiled by: Gita Marina Ahadyanti, S'T., MT. a);Defini There are several det n of Bulk Carriers ions of bulk carriers in different IACS and IMO publications. SOLAS Chapter IX. Reg 1.6 defines a bulk carrier as a ship which is constructed generally with single deck, topside tanks and. hopper side tanks in cargo spaces, and it intended primarily to carry dry cargo in bulk, and includes such types, as ore carriers and combination carriers. SOLAS Chapter XII Reg 1.1 defines a bulk carrier ship which is intended primarily to carry dry cargo in bulk, inclu jon carriers. ing such types as ore carriers and combin: SOLAS contains the broadest definition of a bulk carrier (thus a wide ition), while the CSR defi is more restrictive. Common Structural Rules for Bulk Carriers (CSR-BC), Chapter 1, Section 1 [1.1.2] defines bulk carriers as seagoing, self-propelled ships which are generally constructed with single deck, double bottom, hopper side tanks and topside tanks and with or double side skin construction in the cargo length area, and intended primarily to carry dry cargoes in bulk (see Figure 1). Hybrid bulk carriers, where at east one cargo hold is constructed with a hopper tank and topside tank, are covered by CSR-BC. The structural strength of members in holds constructed without a hopper tank and/ or topside tank must comply with the strength criteria defined in CSR-BC. appl i SO j_, i___/o Figure 1.Typical Arrangements of CSR Bulk Carriers Bulk Carriers Size Categories Bulk carrier type Dimensions Ship size (scantling) ‘Small Up to 10,000 dwt Overall ship length up to approx 115 m Handysize 10,000 - 35,000 dwt ‘Scantling draught up to approx 10m Handymax 35,000 - 55,000 dwt Overall ship length max 190 m ('e port facilities in Japan) Panamax max: Ship breadth equal to 82.2 / 82.3 m (106 ft) Overall ship length up to 225 m ('e port facilities 60,000 - 80,000 dwt Overall ship length up to 289.6 m (950 ft) (@.canal lock chamber) Passing ship draught up to 12.04 m (9.5 ft) Capesize 80,000 - 200,000 dwt Breadth approx 43 - 45 m for 90,000 - 180,000 dwt VLBC - Very Large Bulk Carrier More than 200,000 dwt Overall ship length above 300 mGeneral Bulk Carrier Types Geared bulk carriers are typically in the handysize to handymax size range although there are a small number of geared panamax vessels, like all bulkers they feature a series of holds covered by prominent hatch covers, They have cranes, derricks or conveyors that allow them to load or discharge cargo in ports without shore- based equipment. This gives geared bulkers flexibility in the cargoes they can carry and the routes they can travel. (Photo: A typical geared handysize bulk carrier.) Combined carriers are designed to transport both liquid and dry bulk cargoes. If both are carried simultaneously, they are segregated in separate holds and tanks, Combined carriers require special design and are expensive. They were prevalent in the 1970s, but their numbers have dwindled since 1990. (Photo: The oil pipeline and dry bulk hold aboard the Maya. Gearless carriers are bulkers without cranes or conveyors, These ships depend on shore-based equipment at their ports of call for loading and discharging. ‘They range across all sizes, the larger bulk carriers (VLOCS) ean only dock at the largest ports, some of these are designed with a single port-to-port trade in mind. The use of gearless bulkers avoids the costs of installing, operating, and maintaining cranes. (Photo:Berge Athen, a 225,000 ton gearless bulker.) Self- an exe lischargers are bulkers with conveyor belts, or with the use of rator that is fitted on a traverse running over the vessel's entire and that i sas well. This allows: them to discharge the Photo: The John B. Aird a sel ble to move sidew: cargo quickly and e scharging lake freighter.) BIBO or "Bulk In, Bags Out" bulkers are equipped to bag cargo as it is unloaded. The CHL Innovator, shown in the photo, is a BIBO bulker, In one hour, this ship can unload 300 tons of bulk sugar and package it into 50 kg sacks.Various Ship Types Before the first oil shock, as ship sizes increased, a large number of Ore / Bulk / Oil (OBO) carriers capable of carrying not only coal and grain but also iron ore and crude oil were built, feer the oil shock, crude oil trade volumes decreased, but volumes of iron ore, coal and other dry bulk cargo increased, and combination carriers gradually became less and less common, Over this same period, improvements in ship design, as well as the introduction of high efficiency propellers, made energy efficient large bulk and iron ore carriers more popular. As the variety of cargo types increased and new trade routes developed, the structural configurations of bulk carriers became more diver BU Mee Cee eu ee me se —" Ore Carriers + Due to the high specific gravity of the cargo, cargo holds are relatively small and the side tanks are large. + During the 1970s, there were many ‘combination carriers with side tanks used as oil tanks, but such ships are seldom soen nowadays Wooden Ct + Dus to the low specifi gravity of the cargo, cargo holds are deep and topside tanks are eliminated in or- der to increase hold volume. + Care is necessary for the reinforce ment of the underside of the upper deck, since deck cranes and belt ‘comeyors are generally fitted on deck. + Lower ballast tanks are prone to ‘corrosion due to the relatively high ‘er temperature of the chip cargo. * This type of carrier was once con- sidered to be less versatile but its use has expanded to include carry- ing cargos such as soybean meal. Open Hatch Bulk Carriers: + Wide hatch openings improve cargo handling efficiency. + Possible to load super large size car- goes. + Cargoes other than bulk cargo, such 4s pulp products, steel coils and containers can be carried. Double Side shell Bulk Carriers + Duc to double side configura- tion, frames inside the hull can be climinated. This allows the strength members to be protected from the corrosive environment of the hold while also improving cargo han- dling efficiency. + Just as with single sided bulk carri- cers, double hull bulk carriers nced to comply with the common struc tural rules. Note) In 2002, requirements for dou- bile hull bulk carriers were adopted as mandatory at IMO, but in 2008, prior to the rule coming into effect, the rule was changed and became non-mandatory.Hull Structure Typical Bulk Carrier Structural Configuration The most widely recognized structural arrangement identified with bulk carriers is a single deck ship with a double bottom, hopper tanks, single skin transverse framed side shell, topside tanks and deck hatchways. A typical structural arrangement of a bulk carrier cargo hold space is illustrated in Figure 2. In addition, a typical transverse section in way of a cargo hold is illustrated in Figures 3. Cross deck strip Corrugated ansveree bulkhead Figure 2. Typical Cargo Hold Structural Configuration for a Single Side Skin Bulle Carrier Stengih Deck strength Deck sang Tengiscinat Topside tank Hatem —__ transverse coaming ring web Topsiae tame _—— __ Topside Jongitudnl pating —~ tank {vetical state) sie ane Topsice tank longitudinal sloping plating Topside tank sloping laing ongtuana, ‘Sloe sett tame —__ Sie set CARGO HOLD Liang Hopper tank soping plating ‘ie she longtucinal nner pean song | ont pat plating ongtusnal | sonne Double tne See jottom otom ring wed tank. | boubie bottom rongiint Sige Boon set gel i, tottom Pn Contant HOPPE tank Figure 3. Nomenclature for Typical Transverse Section in way of a Cargo HoldHull Structure In general, the plating comprising structural i transverse bulkheads, ems such as the side shell, bottom shell, strength deck, ner bottom and topside and hopper tank sloping plating provides local boundaries of the structure and carries static and dynamic pressure loads exerted by, for example, the cargo, bunkers, ballast and the sea. This plating is supported by secondary stiffening members such as frames or longitudinals, These secondary members transfer the load girders or the transverse web frames in topside and hopper tanks, etc. The illustration and description be- low shows a number of areas on bulk carriers that require special attention for maintenance and management. {Al Hatch comers are prone to cracking due to high stresses on the upper deck, the width of the opening, and dis- continuity of the strength properties. 1B) The underside of the topside tank (upper deck) and lower part of the topside tank are prone to corrosion. [Gl Due to the configu: ration of the single ide structure, proper maintenance of the frames inside the hold is important from a strength point of view. ‘Once cracks develop on the frames in the hold, there cern that such cracks Acid production process a con- may propagate to the shell plate. Frames in holds are likely to be to primary structural member ich as the double bottom floors and ce figure 3. Bulk carrier under construction damaged during cargo handling, and the lower part in particular is prone to corrosion and high stresses, as well. When carrying coal especially, the moisture gener- ated in the holds due to differences in the temperature in the hold and the surrounding seawater will dissolve the sulphur in the coal causing a chemical reaction that will lead to the development of corrosion (see figure to the right). [D| Large stresses will occur at the bilge knuckle, There are two types of knuckles. Welded knuckles are better from a strength point of view, but need sufficient care to maintain the required workmanship. In the case of round knuckles, suicient structural strength is achieved through the addition of reinforcing stiffeners. EJ End connecting parts of the side bulkheads are prone to developing fatigue cracks due to the concentration of stresses, Special attention is necessary for the ballast holds, since larger loads will be generated when ballast is loaded in the ballast holds.Hull Structure Design Limitations All bulk carriers classed with IACS Member Societies are assigned permissible still water shear forces (SWSF) and still water bending moment (SWBM) limits. ‘There are normally two sets of permissible SWSE and SWBM limits assigned to each ship, namely: going (at sea) SWSF and SWBM limits. + Harbour (in port) SWSF and SWBM limits nd SWBM limits agoing voyage. In harbour, where the ship cltered water and is subjected to reduced dynamic loads, the hull girder is permitted to carry a higher level of stress imposed by the static loads, The harbour SWSF and SWBM limits are not to be exceeded during any stage of harbour cargo operations. not to be exceeded when the ship puts to sea or during any part When a ship is floating in still water, the ship's lightweight (the weight of the ship's structure and its machinery) and deadweight (all other weights, such as the weight of the bunkers, ballast, provisions and cargo) are supported bythe global buoyancy upthrust acting on the exterior of the hull. Along the ship's length there will be local differences in the vertical forces of buoyancy and the ship's weight. These unbalanced net vertical forces acting along the length of the ship will cause the hull girder to shear and to bend, see figures 4, 5 and 6, inducing a vertical still water shear force (SWSF) and still water bending moment (SWBM) at each section of the hull. j u Vv u cy => a cy = CS u Figure 4 Shearing Action of the Hull Girder in Still Water Figure $ of the Hull Girder "Sagging" in Still Condition - IMtustration Purposes Only ter re 6 Bending Action of the Hull Girder "Hogging” in Still Water (Exaggerated Condition - Illustration Purposes Only)Hull Structure Design Limitations ‘At sea, the ship is subjected to cyclical shearing and bending actions induced by continuously changing wave pressures acting on the hull. These cyclical shearing and bending actions give rise to an additional component of dynamic, wave induced, shear force and bending moment in the hull girder. At any one time, the hull girder is subjected to a combination of still water and wave induced shear forces and bending moments. ‘The stresses in the hull section caused by chese shearing forces and bending moments are carried by continuous longitudinal structural members. These structural members are the strength deck, side shell and bottom shell plating and longitudinals, inner bottom plating and longitudinals, double bottom girders and topside and hopper tank sloping plating and longitudinals, which are generally defined as the hull girder Examples of permissible and calculated SWSP and SWBM are shown in figures 7 and 8 respectivel Permissible Harbour SWSF Permissible Seagoing SWSF Calculated SWSF Near Permissible Seagoing SWSF —_——_——— Caleulated SWSF -. ~N 1 Relationship of the Permissible SWSF and the Calculated SWSF Calculated SWEM Near Permissible Seagoing SWEM Permissible Harbour Permissible Seagoing SWBM (Hog) ‘SWBM (Hog) Calculated SWEM “= —_— ~ Permissible Harbour Permissible Seagoing ‘SWBM (Sag) SWBM (Sag) Figure 8 Relationship of the Permissible SWBMI and the Calculated SWBMHull Structure Design Limitations ‘To enhance safety and flexibility, some bulk carriers are provided with local loading criteria which define the maximum allowable cargo weight in each cargo hold, and each pair of adjacent cargo holds (i.e. block hold loading condition), for various ship draught conditions, Over-loading will induce greater stresses in the double bottom, transverse bulkheads, hatch coamings, hatch corners, main frames and associated brackets of individual cargo holds, see figure 9. The double bottom, cross deck and transverse bulkhead structures are designed for specific cargo loads and sailing draught conditions. These structural configurations are sensitive to the net vertical load acting on the ship's double bottom. The net vertical load is the difference between the vertical downward weight of the cargo and water ballast in the double bottom and the hopper ballast tanks in way of the cargo hold and the upward buoyaney force which is dependent on the ship's draught. Load Condition Increased stress Greater distortion Increased stress at hatch corners of topside tank in cross deck strip and coamings Increased stress Increased stress Increased stress in main frames in double bottom in transverse and brackets structure bulkhead Figure 9 Exaggerated Deformation of the Localised Structure due to Overloading of the Cargo HoldHull Structure Design Limitations ‘At sea, the ship is subjected to cyclical shearing and bending actions induced by continuously changing wave pressures acting on the hull. These cyclical shearing and bending actions give rise to an additional component of dynamic, wave induced, shear force and bending moment in the hull girder. At any one time, the hull girder is subjected to a combination of still water and wave induced shear forces and bending moments. ‘The stresses in the hull section caused by chese shearing forces and bending moments are carried by continuous longitudinal structural members. These structural members are the strength deck, side shell and bottom shell plating and longitudinals, inner bottom plating and longitudinals, double bottom girders and topside and hopper tank sloping plating and longitudinals, which are generally defined as the hull girder Examples of permissible and calculated SWSP and SWBM are shown in figures 7 and 8 respectivel Permissible Harbour SWSF Permissible Seagoing SWSF Calculated SWSF Near Permissible Seagoing SWSF —_——_——— Caleulated SWSF -. ~N 1 Relationship of the Permissible SWSF and the Calculated SWSF Calculated SWEM Near Permissible Seagoing SWEM Permissible Harbour Permissible Seagoing SWBM (Hog) ‘SWBM (Hog) Calculated SWEM “= —_— ~ Permissible Harbour Permissible Seagoing ‘SWBM (Sag) SWBM (Sag) Figure 8 Relationship of the Permissible SWBMI and the Calculated SWBMHull Structure Design Limitations ‘To enhance safety and flexibility, some bulk carriers are provided with local loading criteria which define the maximum allowable cargo weight in each cargo hold, and each pair of adjacent cargo holds (i.e. block hold loading condition), for various ship draught conditions, Over-loading will induce greater stresses in the double bottom, transverse bulkheads, hatch coamings, hatch corners, main frames and associated brackets of individual cargo holds, see figure 9. The double bottom, cross deck and transverse bulkhead structures are designed for specific cargo loads and sailing draught conditions. These structural configurations are sensitive to the net vertical load acting on the ship's double bottom. The net vertical load is the difference between the vertical downward weight of the cargo and water ballast in the double bottom and the hopper ballast tanks in way of the cargo hold and the upward buoyaney force which is dependent on the ship's draught. Load Condition Increased stress Greater distortion Increased stress at hatch corners of topside tank in cross deck strip and coamings Increased stress Increased stress Increased stress in main frames in double bottom in transverse and brackets structure bulkhead Figure 9 Exaggerated Deformation of the Localised Structure due to Overloading of the Cargo HoldHull Structure Design Limitations Overloading of the cargo hold in association with insufficient draught will result in an excessive net vertical load on the double bottom which may distort the overall structural configuration in way of the hold, see figures 10 and 11. =»><—_ Shear Stress Transverse *—~ Corrugated Bulkhead Buoyancy Force Figure 10 Shearing of the Transverse Corrugated Bulkhead and Compression of the Cross Deck Ae R Buoyancy Force Figure 11 Excessive Flexural Deformation of the Double Bottom StructureHull Structure Cargo Distributions along Ship's Length Bulk carriers are designed and approved to carry a variety of cargoes, The distribution of cargo along the ship's length has a direct influence on both the global bending and shearing of the hull girder and on the stress in the localised hull structure. The more commonly adopted cargo distributions are: 1. Homogeneous hold loading condition. 2. Alternate hold loading condition. 3. Block hold loading condition. 4. Part hold loading condition. 1, Homogeneous Hold Loading Conditions (Fully Loaded) A homogeneous hold loading condition refers to the carriage of cargo, evenly distributed in all cargo holds, see figure 13, This loaded distribution, in general, is permitted for all bulk carriers and is usually adopted for the carriage of light (low density) cargoes, such as coal and grain. However, heavy (high density) cargoes such as iron ore may be carried homogeneously Figure 13 Homogeneous Hold Loading Condition (Fully Loaded) 2. Alternate Hold Loading Conditions (Fully Loaded) Heavy cargo, such as iron ore, is often carried in alternate cargo holds on bulk carriers, see figure 14. Tt is common for large bulk carriers to stow high density cargo in odd numbered holds with the remaining holds -. This type of cargo distribution will raise the ship's centre of gravity, which eases the ship's rolling surried in a homogeneous load distribution. ‘To support the loading of the heavy cargo in the holds, the local structure needs to be specially designed and reinforced. It is impor that the holds which remain empty, with this type of cargo distribution, have not been reinforced for the carriage of hea with a non-homogencous distribution. It to note y cag Ships not approved for the carriage of heavy cargoes in alternate holds by their classification society must not adopt this cargo load distribution, Figure 14 Alternate Hold Loading Condition (Ful Loaded)Hull Structure Cargo Distributions along Ship's Length 3. Block Hold Loading and Part Loaded Conditions A block hold loading condition refers to the stowage of cargo in a block of two or more adjoining cargo holds with the cargo holds adjacent to the block of loaded cargo holds empty, see figure 15. In many eases, block hold loading is adopted when the ship is partly loaded, Part loaded and block hold loading conditions are not usually described in the ship's loading manual unless they are specially requested to be considered in the design of the ship. When adopting a part loaded condition, to avoid over-stressing of the hull structure, careful consideration needs to be given to the amount of cargo carried in each cargo hold and the anticipated sailing draught. Figure 15 Block Hold Loading Condition CO} xying capacity of the draught When a ship is partly loaded, the cargo transported is less than the full cargo ship. Hence, the sailing draught of the ship is likely to be Tess than its maximum de: ‘The weight of cargo in each hold must be adequately supported by the buoyancy up thrust acting on the bottom shell. A reduction in the ship's draught causes a reduction in the buoyancy up thrust on the bottom shell to counteract the downward force exerted by the cargo in the hold. ‘Therefore, when a ship is partly loaded with a reduced draught, it may be necessary to reduce the amount of cargo carried in any hold. ‘To enable cargoes to be carried in blocks, the cross deck and double bottom structure needs to be specially designed and reinforced. Block loading results in higher stresses in the localised structure in way of the cross deck and double bottom structures and higher shear stress in the transverse bulkheads between the block loaded holds. The weight of cargo that can be carried in the block of cargo holds needs to be specially considered against the ship's sailing draught and the capability of the structure. In general, the cargo load that can be carried in blocks is much less than the sum of the full cargo capacity of the individual holds at the maximum draught condition, Part loaded and bloc situations +The loading distributions are described in the ship's loading manual. In this ease, the ship's structure has been approved for the carriage of cargo in the specified loading condition and the loading conditions described in the ship's loading manual should be adhered to, or, + The ship is provided with a set of approved local loading criteria which define the maximum cargo weight a function of ship's mean draught for each cargo hold and block of cargo hold(s necessary to ensure that the amount of cargo carried in each hold satisfies the cargo weight and draught limits specified by the local loading criteria and the hull girder SWSF and SWBM values are within their permissible limits, hold loading conditions should only be adopted in either of the following limit as Exercise Find out the advantages and disadvantages of each cargo distribution. You may add some figures if necessary. You may use text books and internet as your source.HatchLoading and unloading Loading and unloading of bulkers is a time consuming and dangerous task. The ship's captain plans the process, usually with the assistance of the chief mate. The international regulations require that the captain and the terminal master agree on a detailed plan of loading or unloading before the operations begin. Deck officers and stevedores capsize or break in half at the pier. oversee the operations. Still, from time to time, a ship will be incorrectly loaded and Depending on the cargo, the actual work of loading or unloading ean be done in a variety of ways, In the old and unadvanced ports, cargo is still loaded by showels or bags poured from the hatch cover. Other ports use double-articulation cranes which load at a rate of 1000 tons per hour. More advanced ports use shore based gantry cranes that load at 2000 tons per hour. While the most advanced ports use conveyor belts that can load at a stunning 16,000 tons per hour. However, start-up and shutdown procedures are complicated and dangerous to perform. Once the ship has unloaded its cargo, the crew starts to work on the cleaning of the holds. This is particularly important if the next cargo is of a different type. The immense size of the cargo holds and irritating qualities of many cargoes add to the difficulty of cleaning the holds. When the holds are clean, the actual loading begins. During all stages of loading, it is crucial to keep the cargo level to maintain stability. As the hold is filled, machines such as excavators and bulldozers are often used to keep the cargo in cheek. Levelling is particularly important when the hold is only partially filled, due to increased risks of shifting cargo. This is why extra precautions, like adding longitudinal divisions or securing wood atop the cargo, are taken. Once the hold is entirely filled, a special technique called tomming is used. This technique involves digging out an area directly below the hatch cover and re-filling this area with bagged cargo or weights. Atypical bulker offload el NY 4.Abulidozer is | 2, The bulldozer 3. The gantry 4. The gantry 5. The gantry loaded into the | pushes cargo to _crane picks up the crane removes the crane moves the hold, the center of the | cargo. cargo fromthe —_| cargo toa bin on hold ship. the pier. Photos courtesy of Danny Cornelissen of portpictures.nl@. “The main cargo handling risks ar + Poor ship-to-shore communications + Ignoring loading plans + Inadequate pre-planning of cargo operations + Improperload distribution between holds + Overloading by high-capacity systems + Physical damage during dischargingPotential Problems 1. Deviation from the Limitations Given In the Approved Loading Manual Exceeding the permissible limits specified in the ship's approved loading manual will lead to over-stressing of the ship's structure and may result in catastrophic failure of the hull structure, When deviating from the cargo load conditions contained in the ship's approved loading manual, it is necessary to ensure that both the global and local structural limits are not exceeded. It is important to be aware that over-stressing of local structural members can occur even when the hull girder still water shear forces (SWSF) and bending moments (SWBM) are within their permissible limits. Exceeding the maximum permi Over-stressing of the local structure will occur when ‘ble cargo load in any hold will lead to over-stressing of local structure, * The weight of cargo loaded into a hold exceeds the maximum permissible value specified at full draught. + The weight of ca ent holds exceeds the maximum combined value at full or reduced draught. -go loaded into adja Over-stressing of the local structure may also occur when the weight of cargo loaded into an individual hold has insufficient support of upward buoyancy force; this circumstance can occur when cargo is transported by the ship in a shallow draught condition (for example, partial lod condition with some holds full and remaining holds empty) 2. Loading Cargo In A Shallow Draught Condition To minimise the risks of over-stressing the local structure, the largest possible number of non-success pours should be used for each eargo hold. Loading cargo in a shallow draught condition can impose high stresses in the double bottom, eross deck and transverse bulkhead structures if the cargo in the hold is not adequately supported by the buoyancy upthrus If applicable, the cargo weight limits for each cargo hold, and two adjacent cargo holds, as a function of draught, (che local loading criteria) are not to be exceeded, 3. High Loading Rates High loading rates may caus: should be prepared to STOP cargo operations if the loading operation dev nificant overloading within a very short space of time. ‘The officer in charge tes from the agreed loading plan. There are three main problems associated with high loading rates which may result in over-stressing the ship's structure, namely: + The sensitivity of the global hull girder SWSF and SWBM (An example is presented in Table 1 for illustration purpose only and may not reflect a realistic loading, condition). + Overloading the local structure, synchronisation of the ballasting operations. From the example given in Table 1, the inadvertent loading of 900 tonnes into each of the holds numbered 1 and 7 took 5.4 minutes if two loaders were in operation. The re-distribution of cargo causes the SWSF and SWBM to exceed the allowable limits by 17 and 33 per cent respectively. High cargo loading rates may create problems with the ballasting operation as the pumping capacity of the ship may be relatively low compared to the cargo loading rate. In such cases the cargo operation must be stopped to ensure synchronisation with the ballasting operation is maintained. When necessary, the loading rate must be adjusted to synchronise with the ship's pumping capacity.Potential Problems Loading = [Hold = |Hold3. [Hold /Hold7 = [Maxim == [Maximum [Condition (tonnes) (tonnes) -_|(tonnes) | (tonnes) SWSF SWBM. see note 1 seenote! (tonnes) _|(tonnes-m) see note 2 JApproved ore ]16000 | 18000 18000 16000 | 4900 144700 load consition (97%) (99%) 109% cargo of ‘| 16900 18000 16200 16900 | 5900 193500 Noshold — | 5. 54 . 338%) sea [OA miS) (Amins) |a17%) | (133%) toholds 167 Notes: 1. The time taken to load the additional cargo 1s presented in the parenthesis under the respective hold ‘cargo weight, assuming a loading rate of 10 000 tonnes per hour. 2. Figures in parenthesis in the SWSF and SWBM columns permissible, re the respective percentages of ‘Table1: An Example of the Seusitivity of the Hull Girder to Cargo Distribution of a Bulk Carrier with 7 Holds. 4. Asymmetric Cargo And Ballast Distribution Tris recommended that high density cargo be stowed uniformly over the cargo space and trimming be apy to level the cargo, as far as practicable, to minimise the risk of damage to the hull structure and cargo shift in heavy weather. The distribution of cargo in a hold, and water ballast distribution, have an important influence on the resultant stress in the hull structure. The double bottom and the eros deck structure are designed based upon a trimmed cargo distributed symmetrically in a hold space. Still water shear forces and bending moments given in the ship's loading manual and the corresponding calculations from onboard loading instruments are based on an even distribution of cargo in a hold space, unless otherwise indicated. Still water shear force and bending moments calculated with an onboard loading instrument do not consider the torsional loads acting on the hull girder resulting from asymmetrical cargo or ballast loading, When heavy cargo is poured into a cargo space at one end of the cargo hold, the lateral cargo pressure acting on the transverse bulkhead, as a result of the cargo piling up at one end of the cargo space (see figure 16), will inerease the loads carried by the transverse bulkhead structure and the magnitude of transverse compressive stresses in the cross decks. Fignre Asymmetzic Lougitudiaal Carge Dis With Adjacent tasPotential Problems When the same loading patter is also adopted for the adjacent cargo hold (Figure 17), the lateral cargo pressure acting on the transverse bulkhead will be largely cancelled out. However, in this situation, a large proportion of the vertical forces on the double bottom is transferred to the bulkhead between the two loaded holds which could lead to shear buckling of the transverse bulkhead structure, compression buckling of the cross deck and increased SWBM in way of the transverse bulkhead. Cargo should always be stowed symmetrically in the longitudinal direction, and t nmed, as far as practical Stowing cargo asymmetrically about the ship's centre line in a cargo space (see figure 18) induces torsional loads into the structure which causes twisting of the hull girder. When the hull girder is subjected to torsion, warping of the hull section occurs which gives rise to shearing and bending of the cross deck structure. Water ballast should always be carried symmetrically in port and starboard tanks with equal levels of filling ‘The final fill level of all water ballast tanks and holds must satisfy the requirements specified in the ship's approved loading manual to avoid damage to the internal structure due to sloshing effects ‘The ballasting and deballasting of port and starboard ballast tanks should be camied out simultaneously so that the amount of water ballast in each corresponding pair of port and starboard ballast tanks remains the same through out ballasting or deballasting operations, see figures 19 and 20, Asymmetrical distribution of water ballast induces torsional loads, causing twisting of the hull girder. Porsional loading of the hull girder is considered to be an important contributory factor to recurring cracking at the hatch corners and to problems associated with hatch cover alignment and fittings. In extreme cases, this can lead to extensive buckling of the cross deck structure between the hatch openings,Potential Problems tibation of Watts Ballas 5. Lack of Effective Ship/Shore Communication The lack of effective ship/shore communication may increase the risk of inadvertent overloading of the ship's structure, It is important that there is an agreed procedure between the ship's officers and the terminal operators to STOP cargo operations. The communication link established between the ship and the terminal should be maintained throughout the cargo operation. 6. Exceeding The Assigned Load Line Marks All ships engaged on international voyages are assigned with load line marks in accordance with the provisions of the International Load Line Convention 1966. The appropriate lines marked on the ship's side shall not be submerged at any time during the seagoing voyage. To allow for the difference between the dock water density and the sea water density, the ship may be loaded beyond the appropriate mark by the dock water allowance. The dock water allowance is only applicable in a port environment, It is a statutory requirement that the ship is not to be loaded beyond the limits specified in the Load Line Certificate. ‘The practice of inducing a hogging deflection of the hull girder by end hold(s) trimming to maximise the cargo carrying capacity of the ship to the appropriate marks is to be avoided as this mayresult in the over- loading of the end holds beyond the allowable limit and an increase in both the local and global stresses. 7. Partially Filled Ballast Holds or Tanks Sailing with partially filled ballast holds is prohibited unless the approved loading manual approves of such a practice. Cargo holds designed for partially filled in harbour for the purpose of reducing the ship's air draught are not to contain any water ballast while at sea.Potential Problems Where ballast holds, and in some instances ballast tanks, are partially filled, there is the likelihood of sloshing. Sloshing is the violent movement of the fluid's surface in partially filled tanks or holds resulting from the motion of the ship in a seaway. Sloshing will result in the magnification of dynamic internal pressures acting ‘on the hold/tank boundaries. For any tank design, dimensions, internal stiffening and filling level, a natural period (frequency) of the fluid exists, which, if excited by the ship's motions, can result in very high pressure magnification (resonance) which can result in damage to the tank/hold's internal structure. To minimise the effects of sloshing, the liquid’s motion needs to be controlled by ensuring that tanks are cither pressed up or empty (sloshing can occur at low filling levels) Where a ship has been specially designed for partially filled ballast tanks and/or hold(s) whilst at sea, the filling levels specified in the ship's loading manual are to be followed. 8. Inadequate Cargo Weight Measurement During Loading During cargo loading operations it is important to ascertain the cargo weight loaded into each individual cargo hold and the associated loading rate. Overloading the cargo hold will increase the stress levels in the ship's structure. At high loading rate ports, where there is no suitably positioned cargo weighing equipment, the ship's cargo officer should request that the terminal stops loading to allow draught surveys and tions to be performed to ensure compliance with the agreed loading plan. displacement caleu An appropriately positioned cargo weighing device, which can provide continuously, or at least at each step, an accurate indication of the weight of cargo that has been loaded into each individual hold, is an important piece of equipment which can be used to avoid overloading of individual cargo holds. Therefore, LACS suitably positioned weighing equipment is installed at all terminals, especially those terminals with high loading rates. recommends. th: ‘The weight of cargo loaded onboard a ship is normally determined from the ship's draughts and, where fitted, shore side weighing equipment. Overloading of the ship's structure, can result from: + Inaccurate terminal weighing equipment providing incorrect data, + The limited time available to check the draught and determine the load onboard especially at high loading rate terminals + Loading cargo in a hold, in excessive of the allowable limit, to compensate for partial bunkers. At some terminals the cargo weighing equipment is positioned at a location, remote from the loading operating position. In such cases it is = difficult for the officer in charge to determine how much cargo has been loaded into a spe hold and this equipment may not provide the | Mechanical and coatings damage during cargo discharge necessary accurate information. will contribute to local weaknesses. Hold bottoms (A); Hopper Tank Plating (B); Bulkheads (C) and Side Shell Frames (D) and Brackets (E) are each vulnerable to damage from cargo handling operations.Potential Problems 9. Structural Damage ‘Terminal operators should be aware of the damage that their cargo handling equipment can inflict on the ship's structure, Tt is important that the protective coatings in cargo holds and water ballast tanks are maintained. The cargo holds and deck areas should be inspected by the ship's deck officers upon completion of cargo discharge to identify any signs of physical damage, corrosion or coating damage to the ship's structure. Where hull damage is identified, which may affect the integrity of the hull structure and the seaworthiness of the ship, it should be reported accordingly to the classification sodety. ‘The internal hold structure and protective coatings in the cargo hold and the adjacent double bottom are vulnerable to damage when the cargo is discharged using grabs. The weight of empty grabs can be 35 tonnes. Other types of equipment employed to free and clear cargo, including hydraulic hammers fitted to extending arms of tractors and bulldozers can inflict further damage to the ship's structure, especially in way of the side ‘hell and the associated frames and end brackets. Chipping (sharp indentations) and the local buckling or detachment of side frames at their lower connection could lead to cracking of the side shell plating which would allow the ingress of water in to the cargo space The protective coatings which may be required to be applied in the cargo hold are also subject to deterioration caused by the corrosive nature of the cargo, high temperature cargoes, cargo settlement during the voyage and the abrasive action of the cargo. Where no protective coatings have been applied or the applied protective coatings have broken down, the rate of corrosion in that ar. ly when carrying corrosive cargoes, such as coal. Corrosion will weaken the ship's structure and may, eventually, seriously affect the ship's structural integrity. The severity of the corrosion attained by a structural member may not be easily detected without close-up inspection or until the corrosion causes serious structural problems such as the collapse or detachment of hold ss propagating in the side shell will greatly inerease, especi ames resulting in cr Impact damage to the inner bottom plating or the hopper sloping plating will result in the breakdown of coatings in the adjacent water ballast tanks, thereby intensifying the rate of structural deterioration, MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT DAMAGE !Tightening Rule Requirements Towards the end of the 1980s, a number of bulk carriers sank in a series of highly publicized maritime incidents. In response to these incidents, the IMO adopted a set of amendments called the Enhanced Surve Programme to the SOLAS Convention in order to enhance bulk carrier inspectior After the ESP came into force in January 1996, however, the number of accidents did not decrease. This led to the adoption of additional amendments to the SOLAS Convention and the introduction of further safety measures. The new amendments form Chapter XII of the SOLAS Convention and include new standards for flooding damage stability and other requirements. In 1998, a now study secking ways to further improve bulk initiated under the auspi the IMO. The study was inspired by the accident report from the 1980 sinking of the bulk carrier Derbyshire and utilized a holistic safety assessment method called the Formal Safety Assessment (FSA), ClassNK contributed to the study as a member of the Japanese Government team, As a result of the study, after si years of deliberations new amendments to SOLAS and the Load Line Conventions were adopted in December 2004. [ACS adopted its own additional safety measures, as well. ‘The rules revisions from 1998 onwards are collectively referred to as Bulk Carrier Safety requirements, which resulted in the application of the following safety measures for bulk carr Requirements concerning spare buoyancy and the strengthening of hatch covers were implemented as against flooding of the forward part of the deck, which was thought to be the fundamental cause of Further, requirements for the provision of a flooding warning system (Forward measuy the sinking of the Derbyshire. and action against area and cargo hold) and draining system were adopted to facilitate early disco flooding. Requirements for a forecastle were implemented in order to meet the required buoyancy standards during navigation in heavy weather when the forward part of the ship would be submerged by waves. Tt was also decided that the fitings at the front of the ship should be strengthened! to better resist the force of waves and prevent damage to the air pipes and any flooding that could result from such dam: Many bulk carriers were believed to have sunk due to corrosion on the frames inside the holds. [twas therefore decided thar a permanent means of access should be provided for spaces that were hard to access and difficult to inspect and maintain. For existing ships, a review of the strength of hold frames was made to establish new standard strength criteria and standard renewal criteria, While further safety improvements based on a double side configuration, meant to eliminate hold frames and free strength members from nvironments, were also agreed upon, but in the end those measures did not become mandatory: corrosive in the event of an accident in low temperature water, requirements full ship's complement were also implemented. In order to ensure the safety of the ere for freefall lifeboats and immersion suits for the Bow height & reserve buoyancy, forecestle Free-faliteboats Fore deck a | Immersion suits Hatch covers and Ld securing mechanisms Harmonized notations & Water level detectors & design loading conditions | | pumping arrangements Double side skin Revision to Rules for Bulk Carrier SafetyImproving the safety of bulk carriers ‘Modern bulk carriers, often described as the workhorses of the maritime trade, can be traced back to the 1950s when shipyards began building ships designed specifically for carrying non-packed ‘commodities. Bulk carriers can be identified by the hatches above deck level which give ‘access to the huge cargo holds below. Structural failure and flooding Bulk camer losses in the early 1900s were dramatic: ships sank rapidly, often with the loss. fall ves. Many were old and had suffered structural damage. A study by IACS (Intemational Associaton of Classification Societies) found that after flooding inthe foremost hold, the bulkhead between this hold and the adjacent hold can collapse from the pressure of cargo and water, leading 10 progressive flooding and sinking © rte a 1 rooney nth cove, Sb eerlachs ang eben ‘The dangers with two holds flooding © verpicnaer wacazon Tal lng 180-275 metros “Typical dcoswoigt 88,900 150,00 tonnes rr bauxite, phosphate, nitrate Total amount of all cargoes transported, 1906: 4,795 million tonnes ‘Number lost at sea, 1990 ~ May 1997: 99 Lives lost: 654 © se srs ora eon reat iF © rsne2m6 wh water hold No. Voces the transverse watertight buted to colape= ‘A study by the U.S. Maritime Administration (MARAD) found that a typical midsize bulk carrer should survive all one-hold flooding so long as the ship isnot suffering from metal wastage and undatected cracks but flooding of any two holds would have disastrous consequences. Making bulk carriers safer In November 1997 the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted a new Chapter Xil on bulk carrier to the Intemational Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) 1974. The new rules. ‘cover survivability and structural requirements for bulk carriers of 150 metres and upwards to prevent them from sinking if water enters the ship for any reason. IMO also ‘adopted revised guidelines on enhanced surveys of bulk carriers and ‘a code of practice for safer loading and unloading. ‘Stronger new ships Increase the srength of bukneads ‘and the double boter to winstand Poldstooded constions. Improving cargo ‘handling prac Existing ships ‘The bukhead betweon holds 1 and 2nd the double botiom ot hold 1 must be ‘Srengthened © wihstana ova in hed 1 Unless loading retricions ae imposed. Ny ne own-stoding Inthe engine room. Restrictions on carriage of cargoes Existing buk caries which moot ‘the new stuctural equrerents by eens of loading restrictions must bbe marked with 2 cold equtateral ‘rangle onthe hula mdships below be deck ine orarie Lecoun>