PRECIPITATION

CE-354
 INTRODUCTION
The fall of moisture from atmosphere to the earth in any form is called
precipitation

All forms of moisture from the clouds

and all forms of water like rain, snow, hail
and sleet derived from atmospheric
vapors, falling to the ground
 INTRODUCTION
Precipitation is one of the most important events of hydrology.
Floods and droughts are directly related to the occurrence of
precipitation
Water resources management, water supply schemes, irrigation,
hydrologic data for design of hydraulic structures and
environmental effects of water resources development projects are
related to precipitation in one way or the other. So it is important to
study various aspects of precipitation
 TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
Fog
Thin cloud of varying size formed at surface of earth by
condensation of atmosphere vapor
Mist
Very thin fog (0.005 mm to 0.05 mm)
Drizzle
Light steady rain in fine drops (0.5 mm) and intensity < 1 mm/hr
Rain
Condensed water vapor of atmosphere falling in drops from clouds
(> 0.5 mm to maximum 6 mm)
 TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
Sleet
Frozen rain drops while falling through air at subfreezing
temperature
Glaze
Freezing of drizzle or rain when they come in contact with cold
objects
Snow
Ice crystals resulting from sublimation (water vapor condenses to
ice)
Snow flakes
Ice crystals fused together
 TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
Hail
Small lumps of ice (> 5 mm) formed by
alternate freezing and melting
Graupel

Soft hails flattened on contact with hard

ground surface
Dew
moisture condensed from the atmosphere in
small drops upon cool surfaces.
Frost
Deposit of ice formed on the ground or on
the surface of exposed objects by dew or
water vapor
 FACTORS INFLUENCING
PRECIPITATION FORMATION
Following four conditions are necessary for the production of
precipitation:
1. A lifting mechanism to produce cooling of the air
2. A mechanism to produce condensation of water vapors and
formation of cloud droplets
3. A mechanism to produce growth of cloud droplets to size
capable of falling to the ground against the lifting force of air
4. A mechanism to produce sufficient accumulation of moisture
to account for observed heavy rainfall rates
 FACTORS INFLUENCING
PRECIPITATION FORMATION
1. Mechanism of Cooling
The pressure reduction when air ascends from near the surface to
upper levels in the atmosphere is the only mechanism
capable of producing the degree and rate of cooling needed
to account for heavy rainfall
Cooling lowers the capacity of a given volume of air to hold a
certain amount of water vapor
As large degrees of super saturation are not known to occur in the
atmosphere, excess moisture over saturation condenses
through the cooling process
 FACTORS INFLUENCING
PRECIPITATION FORMATION
2. Condensation of Water Vapors
Condensation of water vapors into cloud droplets takes place on
hygroscopic nuclei which are small particles having an
affinity for water
The source of these condensation nuclei is the particles of sea
salt or such products of combustion of certain sulfurous and
nitrous acids. There appears to be always sufficient nuclei
present in the atmosphere
Condensation will always occur in air, the lower atmosphere is
cooled to saturation, often before the saturation point is
reached
FACTORS INFLUENCING PRECIPITATION
FORMATION
3. Growth of Cloud Droplets
Growth of droplets is required if the liquid water present in the
cloud is to reach the ground. The two processes regarded as
most effective for droplet growth are:

Coalescence of droplets through

collision due to difference in speed of
motion between larger and smaller
droplets
Co-existence of ice crystals and water
droplets
FACTORS INFLUENCING PRECIPITATION
FORMATION
Co-existence effect generally happens in the temperature
range from 100 to 200 F. If in a layer of clouds there is a mixture of
water droplets and ice crystals, the saturation vapor pressure over
ice is lower than that over water. This leads to the evaporation of
water drops and condensation of much of this water on ice
crystals causing their growth and ultimate fall through the clouds.
This effect is known as Bergerons effect. The ice crystals will
further grow as they fall and collide with water droplets
 FACTORS INFLUENCING PRECIPITATION
FORMATION
4. Accumulation of Moisture
Heavy rainfall amount over a river basin
exceeds by far the amount of water
vapor at the atmospheric volume
vertically above the basin at the
beginning of the rainfall. Clearly there
must be a large net horizontal inflow of
water vapor into the atmosphere over the
basin area. This process is called
convergence, which is defined as the net
horizontal influx of air per unit area
 FACTORS INFLUENCING PRECIPITATION
FORMATION

The moisture added to the atmosphere over a basin may be

transported very large distance in the lowest layer of the
atmosphere
When this moist current reaches a region of active vertical motion
it rises thousands of feet and loses much of its contained water
vapor in just a few hours
CLASSIFICATION OF PRECIPITATION
BASED ON THE LIFTING
MECHANISM
The precipitation is often classified according to the factor
responsible for lifting of air to higher altitudes.
Following are the various types of precipitation based on this
classification:
Convectional Precipitation
Cyclonic Precipitation
Orographic Precipitation
 TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
Convective Precipitation
The air close to warm earth
gets heated and rise due to its
low density in colder, denser
surrounding, which cools
adiabatically i.e. no heat
exchange with the
environment to form clouds
which finally burst into thunder
storm
Convective precipitation is
spotty and its intensity may
vary from light showers to
CONVECTIVE PRECIPITATION
 TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
Orographic
precipitation
It results from the
mechanical lifting of
warm moisture laden
air masses over
natural barriers (such
as mountain ranges)
All precipitation in
Himalayas region is
Orographic
 OROGRAPHIC PRECIPATION
Air rises to cross mountains
Rising air expands and cools adiabatically
At dew point temperature, it condenses and forms clouds
Continued condensation may produce rain or snow
TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
Cyclonic Precipitation
Cyclonic precipitation results from lifting of air masses
converging into low pressure area or cyclone due to pressure
difference created by the unequal heating of earths surface
Cyclonic precipitation may be:

Frontal Precipitation
Non-Frontal Precipitation
 TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
Frontal precipitation
When two air masses having different temperatures
and humidity clash each other, condensation and
precipitation occur at the surface of contact. This
surface of contact is called Front or Frontal Surface
If a cold air mass drives out a warm air mass, it is
called Cold Front and if a warm air mass replaces
the retreating cold mass, it is called Warm Front
On the other hand if the two air masses are drawn
simultaneously towards a low pressure area, the
front developed is stationary and called Stationary
Front
TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
Non-frontal Precipitation
In case of non-frontal precipitation,
the moist warm air mass is
stationary and moving cold air mass
meets it
 Cyclones

Precipitation in plain regions is generally cyclonic in character

In the center of the cyclonic storm there is small low pressure air. The isobars
around such a low pressure are very nearly circular in shape. Their intensity is
generally greater than the extra-tropical cyclones.
On an average the tropical cyclones have a diameter of over 300 to 400 miles.
The wind speed around tropical cyclones may be as high as 60 to 90 miles per
hour.
CYCLONES
Precipitation in plain regions is generally cyclonic in
character
On an average the tropical cyclones have a diameter of over
300 to 400 miles. The wind speed around tropical
cyclones may be as high as 60 to 90 miles per hour.
The winds around a tropical cyclone are practically parallel
to the isobars. As the center or eye of the storm
approaches, the high winds suddenly die down as
practically dead calm prevails at the center.
The diameter of the eye of the storm is about 50 miles. The
winds around the center of the storm blow almost in a
circular path (especially over the sea or ocean where the
frictional force is minimum) and at the same time air is
rising.
The vertical motion compels the air to be cooled
adiabatically. This air being humid, condensation takes
place rapidly, resulting copious rainfall and widespread
thunderstorm. Over the center of the storm the weather is
usually fair.
CYCLONES
In the Indo-Pak Subcontinent, the cyclonic storms form in the Bay of Bengal
in different months. During April, May and June most of these storms do not
reach Pakistan. But some of them affect Bangladesh and give very heavy
rainfall there.

During the summer monsoon season, the cyclonic storms reach Pakistan and
are fed with moisture from the Arabian sea resulting in heavy rainfall over the
Northern areas of Pakistan. In September, October and November these
storms are very destructive in Bangladesh.

Such storms cause considerable loss of life and property over the coastal
districts. Cyclonic storms also form in Arabian sea but their number is far
less.
 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION
Amount of Precipitation
The amount of precipitation means the
vertical depth of water that would accumulate
on a level surface, if the precipitation remains
where it falls. The amount of precipitation is
measured in length units (inches, ft., cm.,
mm., etc)
Intensity or Rate of Precipitation
Amount of precipitation per unit time is
called the intensity or rate of precipitation
(mm/hour, etc.)
Both the amount and rate of precipitation are
important in hydrologic studies
 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION
Precipitation is measured by:
Raingauges
RADAR
Satellite
Rain Gauges

The purpose of a rain gauge is to measure the

amount of rainfall at a single point
It measures the depth of water on a flat surface
Depth is assumed to be same as surroundings
 TYPES OF RAIN GAUGES
There are two types of rain gauges:
Non-recording rain gauge (Standard rain
gauge)
Recording rain gauge
A non-recording rain gauge is typically a
catchment device calibrated to provide visual
observation of rainfall amounts
Recording gauges are equipped with paper
charts and/or data logger equipment
 NON-RECORDING RAIN GAUGE
Container of varying dimensions and heights e.g.
- Symons Rain Gauge (127 mm diameter)
- U. S. Weather Bureau Rain Gauge (200 mm
diameter)
Requirements
- Sharp edge
- Narrow neck prevents evaporation
- Rim falls away vertically
- Prevent splashing
 U. S. WEATHER BUREAU RAIN
GAUGE
The standard gauge of U. S. Weather Bureau has a collector of 200
mm diameter and 600 mm height
Rain passes from a collector into a cylindrical measuring tube
inside the overflow can. The measuring tube has a cross-sectional
area 1/10th of the collector, so that 2.5 mm rainfall will fill the tube to
25 mm depth
A measuring stick is marked in such a way that 1/10th of a cm depth
can be measured. In this way net rainfall can be measured to the
nearest 1 mm
The collector and tube are removed when snow is expected. The
snow collected in the outer container or overflow can is melted,
poured into the measuring tube and then measured
 RECORDING RAIN GAUGES
Analogue Devices
Weighing Bucket Rain Gauge
Float Type Rain Gauge
Digital Devices
Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge
Optical Rain Gauge
 ANALOGUE RECORDING RAIN
GAUGES
Weighing Bucket Rain Gauge
Standard instrument used to
quantify rainfall
Spring scale beneath the
collecting bucket platform that
is calibrated to mark the rainfall
depth on a paper chart
The chart is rotated by a
spring-driven or electric clock at
speeds of 1 revolution in 6, 9,
12, 24, or 192 hours
The rain gauge chart is a
record of the accumulated of
rainfall for the selected time
interval
 ANALOGUE RECORDING RAIN
GAUGES
Float Type Rain Gauge
Standard instrument used to
quantify rainfall
Float within collecting bucket
rises with level
Vertical movement marked by
pen and shows rainfall depth on a
paper chart
The chart is rotated by a spring-
driven or electric clock at speeds
of 1 revolution in 6, 9, 12, 24, or
192 hours
The rain gauge chart is a record
of the accumulated of rainfall for
the selected time interval.
 DIGITAL RECORDING RAIN
GAUGES
Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge
Two containers on balance beam form
a tipping bucket
Rain fills one container until it
threshold weight reached
Bucket then tips over, emptying
collected water into total container and
continues to collect rainfall in other
container
Magnet generates electric pulse which
is recorded
 DIGITAL RECORDING RAIN
GAUGES
Optical Rain Gauge (ORG)
The ORG is mounted on a small pole
The ORG sends a beam of light (which we cannot see) from one of its
ends to a detector at the other end
When raindrops fall, they break the beam. The rain rate is measured
by the ORG by measuring how often the beam is broken
The rain rate can be used to calculate the total amount of rain that has
fallen in any given period
ORG measures the rate of rainfall in millimeters per hour (mm/hr)
DIGITAL RECORDING RAIN
GAUGES
Advantages of Recording Rain Gauges
Rainfall is recorded automatically, therefore no need of
attendant
Recording rain gauge also gives intensity of rainfall at
any time, while non-recording gauge gives only total
rainfall for time interval
Recording rain gauges can be installed far off places
as no need of attendant
Possibility of human error is obviated
Disadvantages of Recording Rain Gauges
Costly in comparison to non-recording gauges
Error in recording rainfall due to fault in electrical
or mechanical mechanism
MEASUREMENT OF
PRECIPITATION BY RADAR
This is a modern technique for measurement of
rainfall rate. It can also detect local movement
of areas of precipitation. The electromagnetic
energy released and received back by radar is
a measure of rainfall intensity
The measurement is appreciably affected by
trees and buildings. However extent of rainfall
can be estimated with reasonable accuracy
Use of radar is useful where number of rain
gauges installed in an area is not sufficient
 SOURCES OF ERROR
Mistakes in reading the scale of gauge
Dents in collector rim may change its receiving
area
Instrumental error in gauge or in their recording
or measuring arrangements
Some rainwater may get lost due to splash from
the collector
Some initial rainwater may get lost in
moistening gauge funnel and inside surfaces
 SOURCES OF ERROR
Blowing wind may tilt the rains from vertical which
thus brings less rain catch in the gauge
Vertical upward air currents may impact upward
acceleration to precipitation thus brings less rain
catch in gauge
Gauge inclined 10 from vertical will cater 1.5%
less rainfall than it should
No rainfall recorded during tipping of bucket
Tipping of bucket may be affected due to
rusting or accumulation of dust on pivot
 MEASURED GAUGE ACCURACY

(Un)avoidable Errors
Equipment failure
Observer error Common Errors
Evaporation -1%
Avoidable Errors Adhesion -0.5%
Site Inclination - 0.5%
Obstructions Splash +1%
Height - splashing Wind -5-8%
Surrounds
Wind
 Ideally, the gauge should be sited with
some shelter, but not over-sheltered

Windshields may reduce the loss due to

turbulence (eddies) around the gauge
 RECORDING OF DATA
Paper Charts
Data Loggers
Telemetry

Paper Charts
Simplest method
Chart moved by spring or
electronically driven clock past pen
Pen moves with weight/float etc
Two Types
Drum - rotates
Strip - moves past pen
 RECORDING OF DATA
Data Loggers
A data logger is a computer that records and
stores data from sensors both analog (voltage)
and digital(counts)
The data logger can also be used as a controller
to turn on and off electrical
The data logger requires a program to tell it what
to do
Preloaded computer chip that already has the
program in it
or create the program
Data can then be accessed by a computer to
monitor current conditions or download stored
data
Telemetry
Data stored by logger can transferred directly to
a base station via some form of
telecommunication
RAIN GAUGE NETWORK
The number of rain gauges and their distribution affect the nature
of collected precipitation data. The larger the number of rain
gauges the more representative will be the data collected
But on the other hand we have to observe other factors also, like
economy of the project, accessibility of certain areas and
topography of the area. So, one has to look for some optimum
solution
RAIN GAUGE NETWORK
In this regard the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) has made following
recommendations for minimum number of rain
gauges in a catchment:
In comparatively flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean
and Tropical Zones, the ideal is at least one station for 230
345 sq. miles. However one station for 345 1155 sq.
miles is also acceptable
In mountainous regions of Temperate, Mediterranean and
Tropical Zones, the ideal is at least one station for 35 95
sq. miles. However one station for 95 385 sq. miles is
also acceptable
In arid and polar zones, one station for 575 3860 sq.
miles is acceptable