THE BASIC OF

COMPUTER
HARDWARE
WHAT IS COMPUTER HARDWARE?

is the collection of physical elements that

comprise a computer system.

Computer hardware refers to the physical parts

or components of computer such as monitor,
keyboard, hard disk, mouse, etc. Refers to objects
that you can actually touch, like disks, disk
drives, display screens, keyboards, printers,
boards, and chips.
 In contrast, software is untouchable. Software
exists as ideas, concepts, and symbols, but it
has no substance.

A combination of hardware and software forms

a usable computing system.
HARDWARE COMPONENTS

1. Receive an input
2. Process information
3. Produce output
4. Store information
 BASIC COMPUTER COMPONENTS

1. Input Device
2. Output Device
3. Removable Data Storage
4. Computer Case
5. Data Ports
 INPUT DEVICE
an input device is any peripheral (piece of computer
hardware equipment) used to provide data and control
signals to an information processing system such as
a computer or other information appliance.

Many input devices can be classified according to:

modality of input (e.g. mechanical motion, audio, visual,
etc.)
 KEYBOARD
a keyboard is a typewriter-style keyboard, which uses an
arrangement of buttons or keys, to act as mechanical levers
or electronic switches.

But there are some special keys like Esc (Escape), Ctrl
(Control), and Alt (Alternate). There are also some
keys across the top of the keyboard labeled F1, F2, F3,
and so forth. Those are called the function keys, and
the exact role they play depends on which program you
happen to be using at the moment.
 Most keyboards also have a numeric keypad
with the keys laid out like the keys on a typical
adding machine.
If you're accustomed to using an adding
machine, you might want to use the numeric
keypad, rather than the numbers across the top
of the keyboard, to type numbers. It doesn't
really matter which keys you use.
The numeric keypad is just there as a
convenience to people who are accustomed to
adding machines.
 Most keyboards also contain a set of navigation
keys. You can use the navigation keys to move
around through text on the screen.

On smaller keyboards where space is limited, such

as on a notebook computer, the navigation keys and
numeric keypad might be one in the same.

There will be a Num Lock key on the keypad. When

the Num Lock key is "on", the numeric keypad keys
type numbers. When the Num Lock key is "off", the
navigation keys come into play.
2. IMAGE SCANNER
an image scanneroften abbreviated to just
scanneris a device that optically scans images,
printed text, handwriting, or an object, and
converts it to a digital image. Common examples
found in offices are variations of the desktop (or
flatbed) scanner where the document is placed on
a glass window for scanning.
3. MICROPHONE
(colloquially called a mic or mike; transducer or sensor
that converts sound into an electrical signal.

Microphones are used in many applications such as

telephones, tape recorders, karaoke systems, hearing
aids, motion picture production, live and recorded audio
engineering, FRS radios, megaphones, in radio and
television broadcasting and in computers for recording
voice, speech recognition, VoIP, and for non-acoustic
purposes such as ultrasonic checking or knock sensors.
4. MOUSE
The button on the left is called the primary

mouse button, the button on the right is called

the secondary mouse button or just the right

mouse button.
THE BUZZWORDS THAT DESCRIBE HOW
YOU USE THE MOUSE ARE AS FOLLOWS:

Point: To point to an item means to move the mouse

pointer so that it's touching the item.

Click: Point to the item, then tap (press and release)

the left mouse button.

Double-click: Point to the item, and tap the left mouse

button twice in rapid succession - click-click as fast as

you can.
 Right-click: Point to the item, then tap the mouse

button on the right.

Drag: Point to an item, then hold down the left

mouse button as you move the mouse. To drop the

item, release the left mouse button.

Right-drag: Point to an item, then hold down the

right mouse button as you move the mouse. To

drop the item, release the right mouse button

 POINTING DEVICE
A pointing device is an input interface (specifically
a human interface device) that allows a user to input spatial
(i.e., continuous and multi-dimensional) data to
a computer. CAD systems and graphical user
interfaces (GUI) allow the user to control and provide data to
the computer using physical gestures point, click, and drag
for example, by moving a hand-held mouse across the
surface of the physical desktop and activating switches on the
mouse. Movements of the pointing device are echoed on the
screen by movements of the pointer (or cursor) and other
visual changes.
 KINDS OF POINTING DEVICE

1. Mouse

2. Graphics Tablet

3. Joystick

4. Light Pen

5. Pointing stick

6. Touch pad

7. Touch Screen

8. Trackball
 GRAPHICS TABLET

A graphics tablet (also digitizer, digitizing tablet,

graphics pad, pen pad, drawing tablet, or pen tablet)
is a computer input device that enables a user to hand-
draw images and graphics, similar to the way a person
draws images with a pencil and paper. These tablets may
also be used to capture data or handwritten signatures.
It can also be used to trace an image from a piece of
paper which is taped or otherwise secured to the surface.
Capturing data in this way, either by tracing or entering
the corners of linear poly-lines or shapes is called
digitizing.
 JOYSTICK

A joystick is an input device consisting of a stick

that pivots on a base and reports its angle or
direction to the device it is controlling.
A joystick, also known as the control column, is
the principal control device in the cockpit of many
civilian and military aircraft, either as a center
stick or side-stick. It often has supplementary
switches to control various aspects of the aircraft's
flight.
 LIGHT PEN
A light pen, also called a selector pen, is a

computer input device in the form of a light-

sensitive wand used in conjunction with a

computer's CRT display.

It allows the user to point to displayed objects or

draw on the screen in a similar way to a

touchscreen but with greater positional accuracy.

 POINTING STICK

The pointing stick (trademarked by IBM as the

TrackPoint and by Synaptics as the TouchStyk) is an
isometric joystick used as a pointing device (compare
especially touchpad and trackball). It was invented by
research scientist Ted Selker. It is present on many
brands of laptops, including Lenovo's line of ThinkPad
laptops, Toshiba Tecra laptops, HP business notebooks
and on Dell Latitudes under the name of Track Stick. It
has also been used on computer mice and on some
desktop keyboards (as an integrated pointing device).
 TOUCH PAD

A touchpad (or trackpad) is a pointing device

featuring a tactile sensor, a specialized surface that
can translate the motion and position of a user's
fingers to a relative position on screen. Touchpads
are a common feature of laptop computers, and are
also used as a substitute for a mouse where desk
space is scarce.
 TOUCH SCREEN

A touch screen is an electronic visual display that

can detect the presence and location of a touch within
the display area. The term generally refers to touching
the display of the device with a finger or hand.

Touch screens can also sense other passive objects,

such as a stylus. Touchscreens are common in devices
such as game consoles, all-in-one computers, tablet
computers, and smartphones.
ACHILD SOLVES A COMPUTERIZED
PUZZLE USING A TOUCH SCREEN.
IPAD TABLET COMPUTER ON A STAND
 TRACKBALL
A trackball is a pointing device consisting of a ball held by a
socket containing sensors to detect a rotation of the ball
about two axeslike an upside-down mouse with an exposed
protruding ball. The user rolls the ball with
the thumb, fingers, or the palm of the hand to move a pointer.
Compared with a mouse, a trackball has no limits on effective
travel; at times, a mouse can reach an edge of its working
area while the operator still wishes to move the screen pointer
farther. With a trackball, the operator just continues rolling.
Some trackballs, such as Logitech's optical-pickoff types, have
notably low friction, as well as being dense (glass), so they can
be spun to make them coast.
LOGITECH WIRELESS
TRACKMAN

THE KENSINGTON EXPERT

MOUSE TRACKBALL CAN
USE A STANDARD
AMERICAN POOL BALL
 BARCODE READERS
use light rays to read a product code for the purpose of
easy inventory and monitoring of product movements
and status.
In a well-established stores, barcode readers are
attached to the POS (point-of- Sale) machines or the
ECR(Electronic Cash Register) machines.
POS machines resemble like ECR, but it is 100
percent computer since all the basic parts and features
of Personal Computer (PC) can be found on it.
 IT PRODUCES AND
SELLS EQUIPMENT AND
SERVICE FOR OPTICAL
MARK READERS, ...

MOBILE BARCODE
SCANNER
 WEBCAM
A webcam is a video camera that feeds its images in
real time to a computer or computer network, often
via USB, ethernet, or Wi-Fi.
Their most popular use is the establishment of video
links, permitting computers to act
as videophones or videoconference stations. The
common use as a video camera for the World Wide
Web gave the webcam its name. Other popular uses
include security surveillance, computer vision, video
broadcasting, and for recording social videos .
 Webcams are known for their low manufacturing cost

and flexibility,[1] making them the lowest cost form

of videotelephony. They have also become a source of

security and privacy issues, as some built-in

webcams can be remotely activated via spyware.

 TYPICAL LOW-COST
WEBCAM USED WITH
MANY PERSONAL
COMPUTERS

SPY CAMERA
 OUTPUT DEVICES
An output device is any piece of computer
hardware equipment used to communicate the results
of data processing carried out by an information
processing system (such as a computer) which
converts the electronically generated information into
human-readable form.[1][2]
 OUTPUT DEVICE CATEGORIES:

1. Monitor
2. Printer
3. Speakers
4. Plotter
5. Synthesizer
 COMPUTER MONITOR
A monitor or display (also called screen or visual
display unit) is an electronic visual
display for computers. The monitor comprises the
display device, circuitry, and an enclosure. The
display device in modern monitors is typically
a thin film transistor liquid crystal display(TFT-
LCD) thin panel, while older monitors use
a cathode ray tube (CRT) about as deep as the
screen size.
A 19-INCH, 16:10 WIDE SCREEN LCD
MONITOR
 PRINTER
a printer is a peripheral which produces a text or
graphics of documents stored in electronic form, usually
on physical print media such as paper or
transparencies. Many printers are primarily used as
local peripherals, and are attached by a printer cable or,
in most new printers, a USBcable to a computer which
serves as a document source. Some printers, commonly
known as network printers, have built-
in network interfaces,
INK-JET PRINTER LASER
PRINTER
DOT-MATRIX
 SPEAKER

Computer speakers, or multimedia speakers,

are speakers external to a computer, that disable the
lower fidelity built-in speaker. They often have a
low-power internal amplifier.

A pair of speakers for

notebook computers that are
powered and audio-connected
to the computer via USB
 SYNTHESIZERS

are specialized type of computers that are

designed to generate sounds electronically.

It can be used to produce music or noise.

Most PCs have built-in synthesizers for

producing sounds.
 REMOVABLE DATA STORAGE

In computer storage, removable

media refers to storage media

which are designed to be removed

from the computer without

powering the computer off.

SOME TYPES OF REMOVABLE

MEDIA ARE DESIGNED TO BE

READ BY REMOVABLE READERS

AND DRIVES
 Optical discs (Blu-ray discs, DVDs, CDs)

Memory cards (Compact Flash card, Secure

Digital card, Memory Stick)

Floppy disks / Zip disks

Magnetic tapes

Paper data storage (punched

cards, punched tapes)

USB flash drives

External hard disk drives

 OPTICAL DISC DRIVE

an optical disc drive (ODD) is a disk

drive that uses laser light or electromagnetic
waves within or near the visible light
spectrum as part of the process of reading or
writing data to or from optical discs.

Some drives can only read from discs, but

recent drives are commonly both readers and
recorders, also called burners or writers.
 Compact discs, DVDs, and Blu-ray
discs are common types of optical
media which can be read and
recorded by such drives. Optical drive
is the generic name; drives are usually
described as "CD" "DVD", or "Blu-ray",
followed by "drive", "writer", etc.
 A CD/DVD-
ROM Drive

A Blu-ray (BD-RE
DL) writer tray in
a Sony Vaio E
series laptop
 A Blu-ray drive holds
independent lenses for Blu-
ray and DVD/CD media.
Pictured are lenses from a
Blu-ray writer in a Sony
Vaio E series laptop
 FLOPPY DISK

A floppy disk, or diskette, is a disk

storage medium composed of a disk of thin
and flexible magnetic storage medium,
sealed in a rectangular plastic carrier lined
with fabric that removes dust particles.
They are read and written by a floppy disk
drive (FDD).
 MEMORY CARD
A memory card or flash card is an electronic flash
memory data storage device used for storing digital
information.

They are commonly used in many electronic devices,

including digital cameras, mobile phones, laptop
computers, MP3 players, and video game consoles. They are
small, re-recordable, and able to retain data without power.
 FLASH DRIVE
USB flash drive is a data storage device that
includes flash memory with an integrated Universal
Serial Bus (USB) interface. USB flash drives are
typically removable and rewritable, and physically
much smaller than a floppy disk.
 COMPUTER CASE

A computer case (also known as a

"computer chassis", "cabinet", "box",
"tower", "enclosure", "housing",, "base
unit" or simply "case") is the enclosure
that contains most of the components of
a computer (usually excluding the
display, keyboard and mouse).
 A computer case is sometimes
incorrectly referred to metonymously as
a CPU referring to a component housed
within the case. CPU was a common
term in the earlier days of home
computers, when peripherals other than
the motherboard were usually housed in
their own separate cases
A stripped ATX desktop case. The motherboard will lie flat on
the bottom, against the right panel, with peripheral connectors
protruding through the rear panel, drive bays at the top and
front, and the power supply at the top and rear.
 COMPUTER CASE CATEGORIES:

1. CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT)

2. Hard Disk/Solid-state drive

3. Motherboard

4. Network Interface controller

5. Power Supply

6. RAM (Random Access Memory)

 7. ROM (Read Only Memory)
8. Sound Card
9. Video Card
10. CMOS ( Complementary Metal-
Oxide Semi-conductor)
 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

The central processing unit (CPU,

occasionally central processor unit

is the hardware within a computer system which

carries out the instructions of a computer
program by performing the basic arithmetical,
logical, and input/output operations of the system.

The CPU plays a role somewhat[vague] analogous

to the brain in the computer.
 HARD DISK DRIVE

A hard disk drive (HDD; also hard drive, hard disk,

or disk drive)

is a device for storing and retrieving digital

information, primarily computer data. It consists of
one or more rigid (hence "hard") rapidly rotating discs
(platters) coated with magnetic material, and
with magnetic heads arranged to write data to the
surfaces and read it from them.

Hard drives are classified as non-volatile, random

access, digital, magnetic, data storage devices.
 SOLID-STATE DRIVE (SSD)

A solid-state drive (SSD) (sometimes

improperly referred to as a "solid-state disk"
or "electronic disk") is a data storage
device that uses integrated circuit assemblies
as memory to store data persistently. SSD
technology uses electronic interfaces
compatible with traditional block
input/output (I/O)hard disk drives.
 SSDs do not employ any moving mechanical
components, which distinguishes them from
traditional magnetic disks such as hard disk
drives (HDDs) or floppy disks, which
are electromechanical devices containing
spinning disks and movable read/write heads.

Compared with electromechanical disks, SSDs are

typically less susceptible to physical shock, are
silent, and have lower access time and latency, but
are, at 2011 market prices, more expensive per unit
of storage.

The prices have continued to decline in 2012.

 MOTHERBOARD

A motherboard (sometimes alternatively

known as the main board, system
board, planar board or logic board) is
a printed circuit board (PCB) found in many
modern computers which holds many of the
crucial components of the system, such as
the central processing unit (CPU)
and memory, and provides connectors for
other peripherals.
 NETWORK INTERFACE
CONTROLLER

A network interface controller (also

known as a network interface
card, network adapter, LAN
adapter and by similar terms) is
a computer hardware component that
connects a computer to a computer
network.
 A 1990s Ethernet network interface
controller card which connects to the
motherboard via the now-obsolete ISA (
bus. This combination card features
both a BNC connector (left) for use in
(now obsolete) 10BASE2 networks and
an 8P8C connector (right) for use
in 10BASE-Tnetworks.
Connects to Motherboard via one of:
Integrated

PCI Connector
ISA Connector
PCI-E

FireWire

USB
 Network via one of:
Fast Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet
Optical fiber
Token ring
Speeds10 Mbit/s
100 Mbit/s
1000 Mbit/s
up to 160 Gbit/sCommon manufacturersNovell
Intel
Realtek
3Com
 POWER SUPPLY UNIT (COMPUTER)
A power supply unit (PSU) converts mains
AC (Alternating-current) to low-voltage
regulated DC (Direct-Current) power for the
internal components of a computer. Modern
personal computers universally use
a switched-mode power supply. Some power
supplies have a manual selector for input
voltage, while others automatically adapt to
the supply voltage.
 Most modern desktop personal computer power
supplies conform to the ATX form factor. ATX power
supplies are turned on and off by a signal from the
motherboard. They also provide a signal to the
motherboard to indicate when the DC power lines
are correct so that the computer is able to boot up.
While an ATX power supply is connected to the
mains supply it provides a 5 V stand-by (5VSB) line
so that the standby functions on the computer and
certain peripherals are powered. The most recent
ATX PSU standard is version 2.31 of mid-2008.
 RANDOM-ACCESS MEMORY
Random access memory (RAM) is a form
of computer data storage. A random access
device allows stored data to be accessed in
any order in very nearly the same amount of
time for any storage location or size of
memory device. A device such as a magnetic
tape requires increasing time to access data
stored on parts of the tape that are far from
the ends.
 Memory devices (such as floppy
discs, CDs and DVDs) can access the
storage data only in a predetermined
order, because of mechanical design
limitations; the time to access a given
part of the device varies significantly
due to its physical location.
 ROM ( READ ONLY MEMORY)
is non-volatile type of memory because the
program and data stored into it are
permanent.

Like RAM, the ROM is also a chip.

The ROM is used to check the basic

subsystems of the computer hardware, in
order to ensure that all basic parts are
working and in good condition. Otherwise, the
ROM wont let the computer to function.
 SOUND CARD
A sound card (also known as an audio
card) is an internal computer expansion
card that facilitates the input and output
of audio signals to and from a computer
under control of computer programs. The
term sound card is also applied to external
audio interfaces that use software to
generate sound, as opposed to using
hardware inside the PC.
 Typical uses of sound cards include
providing the audio component for
multimedia applications such as
music composition, editing video or
audio, presentation, education and
entertainment (games) and video
projection.
 VIDEO CARD
A video card (also called a video adapter, display
card, graphics card, graphics board, display
adapter or graphics adapter) is an expansion
card which generates a feed of output images to a
display.

Most video cards offer various functions such as

accelerated rendering of 3D scenes and2D
graphics, MPEG-2/MPEG-4 decoding, TV output,
or the ability to connect multiple monitors (multi-
monitor).
 CMOS ( COMPLEMENTARY METAL-
OXIDE SEMI CONDUCTOR)

the CMOS chip is used to hold and

record all the basic setups of the
computer system such as the number
of hard disks installed, the system
date and time, and if other computer
peripherals are connected to it such
as modem, sound card and others.
 The CMOS is a type of semi-conductor
design technology that consumes less
electrical energy.
In desktop personal computer, this
chip is powered by a battery.
All settings of hardware and software
are recorded on CMOS chip.
 COMPUTER PORT (HARDWARE)

In computer hardware, a port serves as an

interface between the computer and other
computers or peripheral devices. Physically,
a port is a specialized outlet on a piece of
equipment to which
a plug or cable connects. Electronically, the
several conductors making up the outlet
provide a signal transfer between devices.
 CATEGORY OF COMPUTER PORT
HARDWARE

1. Ethernet
2. Fire Wire (IEEE 1394)
3. Parallel Port
4. Serial Port
5. Thunderbolt
6. Universal Serial Bus (USB)
 ETHERNET

Ethernet is a family of computer

networking technologies for local area
networks (LANs). Ethernet was
commercially introduced in 1980 and
standardized in 1985 as IEEE 802.3.
Ethernet has largely replaced competing
wired LAN technologies.
 FIRE WIRE (IEEE 1394)
The IEEE ( Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers) 1394 interface, developed in late 1980s
and early 1990s by Apple as FireWire, is a serial
bus interface standard for high-speed
communications and isochronous real-time data
transfer. The 1394 interface is comparable
with USB and often those two technologies are
considered together, though USB has more market
share. Apple first included
 FireWire in some of its 1999 models, and most Apple
computers since the year 2000 have included
FireWire ports, though, as of 2012, nothing beyond
the 800 version (IEEE-1394b). The interface is also
known by the brandi. LINK (Sony), and Lynx (Texas
Instruments).

IEEE 1394 replaced parallel SCSI in many

applications, because of lower implementation costs
and a simplified, more adaptable cabling system. The
1394 standard also defines a backplane interface,
though this is not as widely used.
 PARALLEL PORT
A parallel port is a type of interface found
on computers (personal and otherwise) for
connecting various peripherals. In computing, a
parallel port is a parallel communication physical
interface. It is also known as a printer
port or Centronics port. The IEEE 1284 standard
defines the bi-directional version of the port,
which allows the transmission and reception of
data bits at the same time.
 SERIAL PORT
In computing, a serial port is a serial
communication physical interface through
which information transfers in or out
one bit at a time (in contrast to a parallel
port). Throughout most of the history
of personal computers, data transfer through
serial ports connected the computer to
devices such as terminals and various
peripherals.
 Serial ports are still used in applications
such as industrial automation systems,
scientific instruments, shop till systems
and some industrial and consumer
products.
 THUNDERBOLT (INTERFACE)

Thunderbolt (codenamed Light Peak) is an

interface for connecting peripheral devices to
a computer via an expansion bus.
Thunderbolt was developed by Intel and
brought to market with technical
collaboration from Apple.
It was introduced commercially on Apple's
updated MacBook Pro lineup on February 24,
2011, using the same connector as Mini
Display Port.
 Though the Thunderbolt trademark was
registered by Apple, full rights belong to Intel
which subsequently led to the transfer of the
registration from Apple to Intel.

Thunderbolt combines PCI

Express and Display Port into a serial
data interface that can be carried over longer
and less costly cables.
 UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS
Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an industry
standard developed in the mid-1990s
that defines the cables, connectors
and communications protocols used in
a bus for connection, communication
and power supply
between computers and electronic
devices.
 USB is not a true bus, meaning only
the root hub sees every signal on the
bus. This implies there is no method
to monitor upstream communications
from a down stream device.
 BITS, BYTES, MEASUREMENT
TERMS, DATA AND INFORMATION

Bits are binary number. They are

either 0s or 1s.
In computer, they are represented by
on/off switches or the presence or
absence of electrical charges, light
pulses, or radio waves.
 For example:

A binary o might be represented by 0 volts of

electricity (0=0 volts).

A binary 1 might be represented by +5 volts of

electricity (1=+5 volts).

Computers are designed to use groupings of 8

bits. This grouping of 8 bits is called a byte.

In a computer, 1 byte represents a single

addressable storage location.
 UNITS OF INFORMATION

UNIT BYTES* BITS*

Bit(b) 1/8 byte 1 bit

Byte (B) 1 byte 8 bit

Kilobyte (KB) 1000 bytes 8000 bits

Megabyte 1 million bytes 8 million bits
(MB)

Gigabyte (GB) 1 billion bytes 8 billion bits

Terabyte (TB) 1 trillion bytes 8 trillion bits
THE FOLLOWING ARE
COMMONLY USED
COMPUTER
MEASUREMENT TERMS:
 Bit The smallest unit of data in a
computer. A bit equals 1 or 0, and it is the
binary format in which data is processed,
stored, and transmitted by computers.

Byte A unit of measure used to describe

the size of a data file, the amount of a over
a network. 1 byte equals 8 bits of data.
Kb (kilobit) Approximately 1000 bits.
 KB (kilobyte) Approximately 1000 bytes
(1024 bytes exactly)
Mb (megabit)- Approximately 1 million
bits
MB (megabyte) - Approximately 1 million bytes
(1,048,576 bytes exactly).

A megabyte is sometimes called a meg. The

amount of RAM in most PCs is typically measured in
Mb. Large Files are often some number of MB size.
 GB (gigabyte) - Approximately 1 billion bytes.

A gigabyte is sometimes called a gig. Hard

Drive capacity on most PCs is typically measured
in GB.

TB(terabyte) - Approximately 1 trillion bytes.

Hard drive capacity on some high-end computers is
measured in TB.

kbps (kilobits per second) - One thousand bits per

second. This standard measurement of the amount
of data transferred over a network connection.
 kBps (kilobytes per second) - One thousand bytes
per second. This is a standard measurement of the
amount of data transferred over a network
connection.
Mbps ( megabits per second) -One million bits per
second. This is a standard measurement of the
amount of data transferred over a network
connection. Basic Ethernet operates at 10 Mbps.

MBps (megabytes per second) - One million

bytes per second. This is a standard measurement
of the amount of data transferred over a network
connection. 10G or 10 Gigabit Ethernet operates at
10 Gbps.
 Tbps (terabits per second) - One trillion bits
per second. This is a standard measurement of
the amount of data transferred over a network
connection. Some high- speed core Internet
routers and switches operate at more than Tbps.

Hz (hertz) - A unit of frequency. It is the rate

of change in the rate of change in the state or
cycle in a sound wave, alternating current, or
other cyclical waveform. It represents one cycle
per second.
 Mhz (megahertz) - One million cycles per
second. This is a common measurement of the
speed of a processing chip, such as a computer
microprocessor. Some cordless phones operate in
this range (for example, 900MHz).
GHz (gigahertz) - One thousand million, or 1
billion (1,000,000,000), cycle per second. This is a
common measurement of speed of a processing
chip, such as a computer microprocessor. Some
cordless phones and wireless LANs operate in this
range (for example, 802.11b at 2.4 GHz).
T H E END